
Class 

Book ■ 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 




3^EDDP$«9r& i5M0Of 



HISTORY 



GREECE AND ROME, 



INCLUDING 



JUDEA, EGYPT, AND CARTHAGE. 

Jtatgefc tor % te 0f Stfpis. 

WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS. 



BY 

J 

JOHN RUSSELL, A.M. 

AUTHOR OF THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES AND THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. 



A NEW AND REVISED EDITION, 



W\i\ Illustration. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

LINDSAY & BLAKISTON. 

1854. 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by 

Liyj QSAY& MiAK ISTOy, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern 
District of Pennsylvania. 



3 5"«1 



PREFACE 



Is completing his series of school histories, the author of 
the present work has deemed it important to comprise in the 
same volume the ancient history of Greece and Rome, and 
of the other ancient nations, who were all more or less con- 
nected with these powerful and far-conquering states. Al- 
though it would be easy to multiply volumes by giving to 
each of the less civilized and influential nations a minute 
and extended history, yet the true interest of learners would 
not be consulted by such a course. To trace the progress 
of civilization and intellect with that degree of distinctness 
which is requisite in a course of historical instruction at 
school, it is deemed sufficient, so far as ancient history is 
concerned, to study a clear and succinct history of Greece 
and Rome, with such notices of the other ancient nations as 
will give a correct idea of their extent and importance ; the 
leading events and characters occurring in their annals ; and 
their relations with those two great states which were the 
chief depositaries of power, learning, and refinement, during 
the respective periods of their independence. Such a course 
has been followed in this volume ; and it is hoped that the 
information which it comprises will enable the young student 
to acquire a correct idea of the earlier periods of history ; 
and to understand the allusions, which he may meet with in 
a general course of literature, to the great nations, charac- 
ters and events of antiquity. 

1* (5) 



CONTENTS. 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

Chap. 1. From the Creation to the Confusion of Tongues Page 13 

2. Noah's Descendants 15 

3. The Call of Abraham 16 

4. The Israelites in Egypt 19 

5. The Judges over Israel 21 

6. David and his Successors 24 

7. Jehu, Amaziah, and their Successors 26 

8. Xerxes favours the Jews — Macedonian Dominions in Judea 29 

9. Dominion of the Romans in Judea — Asmonean Dynasty 31 

10. Herod, King of the Jews. — Birth of Jesus Christ 34 

11. Judea under Roman Procurators 36 

12. Ancient Nations connected with the Jews 39 

HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

Chap. 1. Description of Egypt. — Its Architecture 47 

2. Learning and Superstition of the Egyptians — Military Establishment 50 

3. Of the Kings of Egypt 52 

4. Egyptian Colonies 55 

5. Nechao, Psammis, Apries— Conquest of Egypt o7 

HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 

Chap. 1. Origin of the Carthaginians — Their Religion, Government, and Com- 
merce 63 

2. Resources, Extent, and Early History of Carthage ". . 65 

3. Colonies of Carthage — Foreign Wars — Hamilcar — Hannibal 68 

4. Hanno, Agathocles — War with Rome 70 

HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Chap. 1. Early History of the Grecian States 79 

2. Institutions of Lycurgus 81 

3. Institutions of Solon . 84 

4. Preparations of Darius for the Invasion of Greece 87 

5. Invasion Of Greece by the Persians 89 

6. March of Xerxes to Greece 91 

7. Defeat of the Persians in Greece 94 

8. Final Expulsion of the Persians from Greece 96 

9. Treason of Pausanias — Flight of Themistocles 97 

10. Death of Xerxes 98 

11. Rise of Pericles — Public Services of Conon 101 

12. Pericles at the Height of his Power 103 

13. The Peloponnesian War 107 

14. Peloponnesian War continued — Affairs of Persia — Alcibiades 109 

15 Unfortunate Expedition to Sicily 112 

16. The Thirty Tyrants— Thrasybul us 115 

17. Expedition of Cyrus 117 

18. Retreat of the Ten Thousand 118 

19. Agesilaus — Victory of Conon — Decline of the Lacedaemonian Power 121 

20. Socrates •. . . 125 

21. Manners and Customs of the Greeks 126 

22. Government of Athens , 129 

(7) 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Chap. 23. Government of Athens, continued 131 

24. Education and Military Institutions of the Greeks 132. 

25. Character of the Athenians 135 

26. Kise of the Theban Power. — Pelopidas — Epaminondas 136 

27. Artaxerxes Mnemon undertakes the Reduction of Egypt 140 

28. War of the Allies against the Athenians 142 

29. Philip of Macedon 143 

30. The Sacred War 146 

31. Siege of Perinthus — Battle of Chaeronea — Banishment of ^Eschines 148 

32. Philip is declared Generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians — 

His Death 150 

33. Alexander ascends the Throne; and is declared Generalissimo of the 

Greeks against the Persians 152 

34. Alexander's Expedition 154 

35. Battle of Issus— Siege and Capture of Tyre 156 

36. Battle of Arbela— Death of Darius 159 

37. Death of Clitus — Expedition to India 161 

38. Alexander returns from India — His Death 164 

39. Successors of Alexander — Death of Phocion 168 

40. Achaean League — Greece reduced to a Roman Province 170 

41. Affairs of Judea, Egypt, and Syria 172 

HISTORY OF ROME. 

Chap. 1. The Foundation of Rome 179 

2. Sabine War — Numa Pompilius — Tullus Hostilius 181 

3. Ancus Martius — Lucius Tarquinius Priscus— Servius Tullus 184 

4. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus— End of the Regal Government 188 

5. Consuls *38 

6. Tribunes created, U. C. 260.— Agrarian Law 190 

7. The Creation of the Decemviri, U. C. 302— Virginius 193 

8. Veian War — Invasion of the Gauls 196 

9. War with the Latins and Samnites — Pyrrhus 199 

10. First Punic War, B. C. 264 202 

11. The Second Punic War 204 

12. War with Philip, King of Macedon 207 

13. Jugurthian War— Marius— Sylla 210 

14. Catilin^s Conspiracy — Caesar crosses the Rubicon 213 

15. Battle of Pharsalia— Death of Pompey 216 

16. Caesar in Egypt— Cato in Utica 219 

17. Death of Caesar— The Triumvirate 221 

18. Battle of Philippic Death of Brutus 227 

19. Antony in Egypt 229 

20. Consolidation of the Imperial Power by Augustus . . 232 

21. Tiberius— Caligula 234 

22. Claudius— Expedition to Britain 237 

23. Nero— Galba 239 

24. Otho — Vitellius — Vespasian 240 

25. Titus— Domitian 242 

26. Nerva — Trajan — Adrian 244 

27. Adrian's Expedition — Antoninus Pius— Marcus Aurelius 246 

28. Coramodus — Pertinax — Septimius Severus 249 

29. Caracalla and Geta — Alexander Severus — Maximin — Philip — Decius 

— Gallus 251 

30. Valerian and his Successors 254 

31. Constantine 256 

32. Successors of Constantine— Julian 258 

33. Valentinian — Valens — Gratian — Theodosius 260 

34. The Barbarous Nations who subverted the Roman Empire — Fall of 

the Empire 262 

35 Boundaries of the Roman Empire 265 



( io 




ANCIENT HISTORY 



THE JEWS. 

(ii) 



HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 



CHAPTER 1. 
FROM THE CREATION TO THE CONFUSION OF TONGUES. 

We learn from the Sacred Scriptures, the only source from which 
the earliest authentic information can be drawn, that the creation of the 
heavens and the earth was produced by the immediate power of the 
Deity. By his sovereign command the light appeared. Form and order 
arose out of a rude chaotic mass. The wide expanse of firmament 
divided the upper from the lower waters. The earth, the sea, and the 
air, abounded with living creatures, adapted to their respective ele- 
ments ; lastly Man, the noblest work of the creation, was called into 
existence ; and as it was not good for man to be alone, to him was given 
a suitable helpmate. 

Adam and Eve, our original parents, were placed in a paradise, called 
the Garden of Eden, in which they enjoyed a state of innocence and 
purity, with permission to partake of every tree in the garden, except 
that of the knowledge of good and evil. But they disobeyed the divine 
command, and they suffered the consequence of their disobedience ; 
they fell, and were banished from Paradise, B. C. 4004. — Cain, Adam's 
eldest son, was born in the first year of the world ; and in the year fol- 
lowing, Abel, his brother. Abel was a keeper of the flocks, but Cain 
was a tiller of the ground, and occupied in the labours of husbandry. 

Their tempers were as different as their occupations. Abel was a 
lover of righteousness : Cain was obstinate and wicked. It was usual, 
in the infancy of the world, to present oblations to God. Abel brought 
of the firstlings of his flock, and Cain of the fruit of the ground. The 
sacrifice of Abel, on account of his piety, was more acceptable to God 
than the offering of Cain ; and the latter, transported with envy and 
rage, slew his brother. The Almighty, on account of this fratricide, 
condemned Cain to become for a while a fugitive and a vagabond on 
the earth, till he settled in the land of Nod. 

What is the scripture account of the Creation? — For what crime were Adam 
and Eve banished Paradise? — When? — Who were their children? — Why was 
Abel's sacrifice more acceptable than Cain's ? — What followed ? 

2 (13) 



14 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

The birth of Seth, which happened some time after, must have 
afforded our first parents much consolation. His descendants were long 
distinguished for their piety, so that they were called the sons of God,~ 
while the family of Cain were denominated the sons and daughters of 
men. At length, however, the descendants of Seth also neglected the 
service of the great Creator, and contracted alliances with the daughters 
of Cain, whose vices they gradually adopted. Some arts must have 
attained a degree of cultivation before the Deluge. For Cain built a 
sity. Jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents. Jubal was the 
father of such as handled the harp and organ. Tubal Cain taught the 
manufacture of brass and iron. The sister of Tubal Cain, Naamah, 
discovered the art of spinning, and of making woollen clothes. By 
degrees the human race had so degenerated, all flesh had so corrupted 
its way upon the earth, that God determined to destroy it by a flood of 
waters. 

One man, Noah, a descendant of Seth, however, found grace in the 
eyes of the Lord. And on account of his piety, God was pleased to 
save him from the general destruction ; commanding him to build an 
ark, or vessel, sufficient to contain himself, and his own family, and 
some of every species of animals, with proper provision for their sub- 
sistence. In the year of the world, 1656, and B. C. 2348, he entered 
the ark ; and the windows of heaven were opened, and the fountains 
of the great deep were broken up ; and the world which then was, 
being overflowed with water, perished. The waters, which had in- 
creased during one hundred and fifty days, at length subsided; and 
after being inclosed in the ark for about the space of a year, Noah, and 
all that were with him, came forth out of the ark, which rested on the 
mountains of Ararat, B. C. 2347. On quitting the ark, Noah erected 
an altar and offered thereon burnt-sacrifices ; and the Almighty gra- 
ciously accepted his piety, and declared, that he would not again curse 
the ground for man's sake, nor cut off all flesh by the waters of the 
flood. And as a token of that promise, said God, " I do set my bow 
in the clouds." 

With the testimonies of the Sacred Scriptures, (Genesis, chap. 6, 7,) 
the writings of some of the ancient authors, and the different appear- 
ances of Ihe globe, concur in support of the truth of this event. The 
length of the ark was 517 feet, its breadth 94, and its height 55. 

Not only the lives of the Antediluvians, but of many after the flood 
were protracted to a great age. Adam lived 930 years, Methuselah 
969 years, and Noah 950 years. 

Many historians having marked some coincidences between the cha- 
racter and life of Fohi, the first emperor of China, and that of Noah, 
have conjectured that Noah might have been the founder of the Chi- 
nese empire. 

? The sons of Noah were Shem, Ham, and Japhet. Japhet was the 
eldest, and the patriarch pronounced a blessing upon him, saying, 

How were the descendants of Seth and Cain distinguished?— Jabal?— Jubal?— 
Relate the particulars of Noah and the flood.— When did it take place?— What 
were the ages of several antediluvians?— What is said of Noah?— Repeat the 
prophetic words of Noah ? 



noah's descendants. 15 

"God shall enlarge Japhet, he shall dwell in the tents of Shem, and 
Canaan shall be his servant." Concerning the posterity of Ham, he 
said, " Cursed be Canaan, a servant of servants shall he be unto his 
brethren." Shem was honoured by the Hebrews, who were his de- 
scendants, as were also the Assyrians, Persians, Syrians, &c. Ham 
was the founder of the Egyptians, Ethiopians, &c. 

CHAPTER 2. 
NOAH'S DESCENDANTS. 

Among the most distinguished of the descendants of Ham, was Nim- 
rod, who is termed, in Genesis, a mighty hunter before the Lord. The 
beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneth. 

The immediate descendants of Noah quitted the environs of Ararat, 
and descended to the plains of Shinar. On this spot they resolved to 
build a city, and a tower whose top might reach to heaven, about 2247 
years B. C., and 100 years after the flood. When'they had carried 
their edifice to a very considerable height, the Scriptures inform us that 
the Almighty confounded their language, so that they no longer under- 
stood each other. For this reason the city was called Babylon. This 
compelled them to relinquish their vain project, and the result was the 
dispersion of mankind into different countries. 

Before this event mankind spoke the same language, and occupied 
the same portion of the earth ; but their diversity of tongues occasioned 
their separation, and the forming of different nations. As families 
increased, their domains were extended, and towns and cities were 
erected. Hence arose the different laws and customs of nations, which 
have since overspread a considerable portion of the globe. 

It may, perhaps, be collected from the testimony of the Sacred 
Scriptures, and from the deductions of philosophy, that man has always 
existed in society, and that the first societies were families, the first 
form of government patriarchal ; that the first nourishment was the 
fruits of the earth, that gradually man became a keeper of flocks and 
herds, and a cultivator of corn, that from the union of families arose 
monarchies, the most ancient form of extended civil government. It is 
in this last state we propose to trace the most important events that 
have taken place among the various branches of the human race. 

About 150 years after the deluge, Nimrod (the Belus of profane his- 
torians) built Babylon on the eastern side of the river Euphrates, and 
Assur built Nineveh, on the river Tigris, which became the capital of 
the Assyrian Empire. 

Ninus, the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, particularly the 
latter, are said to have raised the empire of Assyria to a high degree 
of splendour. From the death of Ninus down to a revolt of the Medes 
under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 years, there is a chasm in the his- 

What were Shem's descendants? — Ham's? — What is said of Nimrod? — When 
and by whom was the tower of Babel built ? — What occasioned the dispersion of 
mankind ? — What was the most ancient mode of government ? — Who were the 
builders of Babylon and Nineveh? — What is said of Ninus and Semiramis? 



16 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

tory of Assyria and Babylon, that can be supplied only by conjecture ; 
and the earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncertain. 

Origin of Laws. — Certain political writers have supposed that, in 
the infancy of society, penal laws must have been extremely mild. 
Perhaps the contrary was rather the case, as the more barbarous the 
people, the stronger must be the bonds to restrain them ; and history 
confirms the supposition in the ancient laws of the Jews, Egyptians, 
Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. 

Among the earliest laws of all states, are those regarding marriage, 
for the institution of marriage is coeval with the formation of society. 
The laws of succession are next in order. The father had the absolute 
power in the division of his estate ; but primogeniture was understood 
to confer certain rights. 

Early method of authenticating contracts. — Before the invention of 
writing, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and the like, were tran- 
sacted in public. Of these the Jewish and Grecian histories furnish 
many examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains 
by exchanging symbols or tallies. The Peruvians accomplished most 
of the purposes of writing by knotted cords of various colours, termed 
Quipos. The Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance by 
painting, or, as it is called, picture writing. Other nations used sym- 
bols called hieroglyphics, as did the Egyptians. 

The first vehicles of history were poetry and song. The songs of the 
bards record a great deal of ancient history ; and the laws of many of 
the ancient nations were composed in verse. Among barbarous nations, 
the monuments of their history are stones, both rude and sculptured, 
tumuli and mounds of earth; and among people more refined are 
columns, triumphal arches, coins and medals. 

CHAPTER 3. 

THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 

When Abraham was about seventy-five years old, at the command 
of God he removed from Mesopotamia,* with Sarah his wife and Lot 
his nephew, into Canaan, (B. C. 1920,) where the Lord appeared to him, 
and promised that his seed should possess that land. He was afterwards 
compelled, however, to remove into Egypt for a short time on account 
of a great famine in Canaan. He had not been long in that country when 
Pharaoh the king, not knowing that Sarah was Abraham's wife, was 
struck with the charms of her person, and took her to his palace. (B. C. 
1919.) God graciously interfered for them, and she was restored to Abra- 
ham. After their return from Egypt, Abraham and his nephew separated 
on account of a quarrel between the shepherds concerning the pasture. 

♦Mesopotamia is the country lying between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. 

What is said of penal laws ? — What laws were supposed to have been first insti- 
tuted? — What next? — How were bargains and contracts made in early times?— 
What of Qiiipos ? — What were the earliest vehicles of history ? — What were the 
earliest monuments ? — The later ones ? — From what country was Abraham called 
—When? 



THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 17 

About this time the Almighty renewed the promise to Abraham, 
■** that in his seed all the nations of the earth should be blessed," when 
as yet he had no child. By the advice of Sarah, he took to him Hagar, 
her hand-maid, who bore him a son called Ishmael. (B.C. 1857.) A 
misunderstanding arising between her and Sarah, she departed from her 
master's house, and took with her Ishmael, who became the father of the 
Arabs. When Abraham was an hundred years old, Isaac, the promised 
child, was born, and was circumcised on the eighth day, according to the 
command of God, who had appointed that rite as a sign of the cove- 
nant made between himself and the patriarch. 

In order to try his faith, the Lord ordered Abraham to sacrifice his 
beloved son Isaac, who was the child of promise. Accordingly he 
prepared to obey the command, bound his son, and laid him as a victim 
on the altar, when the Almighty, satisfied with his fidelity, bade him 
desist from his design, and repeated his promise to him who had not 
withheld his only son. Soon after this happened, Sarah died and was 
buried in Hebron. Abraham then espoused Keturah, by whom he had 
six sons, who settled in Arabia. 

Abraham being solicitous to see Isaac settled, sent his steward (B. C. 
1838,) to Padan Aram, to seek a wife for Isaac ; and Rebecca, the pa- 
triarch's niece, became the spouse of his son. Abraham died at the age 
of one hundred and seventy-five years, and his sons Isaac and Ishmael 
buried him in the cave of Machpelah, where Sarah had been interred. 

Rebecca bore Isaac two sons, Esau and Jacob. As the lads grew, 
Esau became a noted hunter, and was his father's favourite; but Re- 
becca evinced a partiality for his milder brother, who, she had been as- 
sured by divine revelation, was to inherit the blessing. When Esau 
returned from hunting one day, greatly fatigued, he sold his birth-right 
to Jacob for the gratification of his appetite. By afterwards depriv- 
ing him of his father's blessing, Jacob incurred the displeasure of Esau 
(B. C. 1761,) and to avoid his resentment, was obliged to seek a retreat at 
Padan Aram, the place of his mother's nativity. On his journey, God 
renewed to him all the promises he had made to Abraham. Jacob was 
welcomed to the house of his uncle Laban, whose two daughters, 
Leah and Rachel, he married, having served their father seven years 
for each. They with their hand-maids bore the twelve patriarchs, and 
one daughter Dinah. His beloved Rachel bore only Joseph and Ben- 
jamin. 

After having fed the flocks of his father-in-law for twenty years, and 
having amassed considerable wealth, he returned with his family and 
treasures unto his own country. Jacob despatched messengers to ap- 
prise Esau of his arrival ; and sent with them a rich present as a token 
of his brotherly love. They met with a favourable reception, and Esau 
set out to meet his brother, with four hundred men. When Jacob per- 
ceived this numerous retinue, he was greatly alarmed, fearing that Esau 

What was the Almighty's promise to Abraham? — When was Ishmael born?— 
Tsaac? — What sacrifice was Abraham called to make? — What followed ? — Whom 
did Isaac marry? — What was Abraham's age? — For what did Esau sell his birth- 
right?- When ?- What followed ?— To what country and family did Jacob retire ? 

a * 



18 HISTOR? OF THE JEWS. 

still harboured feelings of resentment against him. The meeting of 
the two brothers, however, was amicable, and a perfect reconciliation 
was effected. Esau departed to his residence at Seir, and Jacob 
pitched his tents in the vicinage of Succoth. Isaac died in the hun- 
dred and eightieth year of his age, and his sons Esau and Jacob buried 
him. 

Jacob lost Rachel when she was delivered of Benjamin : Joseph 
now became his favourite child, and was distinguished with peculiar 
marks of love. (B. C. 1729.) His brothers beheld with jealousy their 
father's partiality. They were further exasperated against Joseph, by his 
relating to them some remarkable dreams, which evidently foretold that 
he should come to great honour, and that his brothers should do him ho- 
mage. Therefore to rid themselves of this object of their jealousy, 
they sold him to a troop of Arabian merchants, who carried him into 
Egypt, and disposed of him to Potiphar, captain of Pharaoh's guard. 
In the mean time the wicked brothers dipped his coat in blood, and 
sent it to their aged father, who in the anguish of his soul exclaimed 
" Joseph is without doubt rent in pieces." The young Hebrew served 
Potiphar in Egypt with diligence and fidelity, and his master advanced 
him to great honour, and appointed him overseer of all his affairs. 

His mistress, however, conceived a violent passion for him, but Jo- 
seph rejected her solicitations. She then accused him to her husband 
of insulting her, and he was cast into prison. In the same place of 
confinement were Pharaoh's chief butler and chief baker, each of whom 
related a remarkable dream to Joseph, which he interpreted and ap- 
pointed the time for their fulfilment, begging, as the only recompense, 
that the chief butler would remember his kindness when he was re- 
stored to his former office, as Joseph foretold he should be. 

After this the king was greatly perplexed by a dream which the ma- 
gicians and wise men were unable to interpret. (B. C. 1715.) The butler 
now recalled to mind his own dream, which had been accomplished pre- 
cisely as Joseph had foretold. Accordingly, at his recommendation, Jo- 
seph was sent for, who readily interpreted this dream. He was now ho- 
noured at the Egyptian court, and raised to the highest distinction in the 
empire next to the king. He rode in the second state carriage, and they 
cried before him " Bow the knee." According to his prediction there 
came seven years of great abundance, when he built granaries, and col- 
lected vast quantities of grain for provisions in the famine that was to 
follow. Joseph espoused Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, priest 
of On, by whom he had two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. 

How was he reconciled to Esau 1 — How came Joseph to be sold and carried to 
Egypt ? — What gave occasion to his imprisonment ? — What dreams did he interpret ? 
— What was the consequence ? — How did he serve Pharaoh? — How was he re- 
warded ? 



THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 19 

CHAPTER 4. 
THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 

The famine came on as Joseph had predicted, and was severe in Ca- 
naan. Jacob, hearing that there was corn in Egypt, sent his ten sons 
thither to purchase some, but kept Benjamin at home, as he was now 
the darling of his father. When the ten brothers arrived in Egypt, 
Joseph immediately recognised them ; but being desirous of proving 
them, he pretended that they were spies, and ordered Simeon to be put 
into prison, while the nine went to carry provision for their families. 
He also told them not to presume to see him again without bringing 
Benjamin, their younger brother, with them. When they told this to 
their aged father, with his heart full of grief he exclaimed, " My son 
shall not go down with you." 

But the urgency of the case, and the promise of Judah to restore 
Benjamin to his father, induced the patriarch to let him go. When 
Joseph beheld his younger brother, all his fraternal feelings returned, 
and after trying their affection for Benjamin, he discovered himself to 
his brothers, and instead of revenging their baseness, he owned the 
hand of Providence in the whole transaction. He then sent for his 
father and all the family to emigrate into Egypt. When Jacob saw 
the presents and carriages sent by his son, his heart revived and he 
exclaimed, "It is enough ; Joseph my son is yet alive ; I will go and 
see him before I die." The meeting was truly affecting; Pharaoh 
gave them permission to settle in the land of Goshen, and appointed 
Joseph's brothers his principal shepherds. 

After living seventeen years in Egypt, the venerable patriarch felt 
his dissolution drawing nigh. (B.C. 1689.) He called his children 
into his presence, and after blessing them enjoined them to carry his 
bones into Canaan, to be buried in the sepulchre of his fathers. The 
body was embalmed, according to the Egyptian custom, and Joseph 
and his brothers, with a numerous retinue, carrried it to Machpelah. 

(B. C. 1630.) Joseph died in the hundred and tenth year of his age, 
greatly lamented by the Egyptians. On his death bed he reminded 
his brethren of God's promise to bestow upon them the land of Ca- 
naan, and by a solemn engagement bound them to carry his bones with 
them at their departure. 

After a lapse of some years a new king commenced a violent perse- 
cution against the Hebrews, and subjected them to the most rigid sla- 
very. Finding their numbers multiply very fast, he published a cruel 
edict, ordering that every male child of the Hebrews should be cast 
into the Nile as soon as born. (B. C. 1571.) About this time Moses 

What occasioned the Israelites to go to Egypt? — In what part of Egypt did the 
Tsraelites settle ? — Give an account of Jacob's death and burial. — What was Jo- 
seph's age ?— What promise did he exact from his brethren ? — What happened to 
the Hebrews after his death? — Who was Moses? — Relate the particulars of Mo 
ees in the bulrushes. 



20 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

was born, and his parents finding him a promising child, hid him till 
concealment became dangerous. His mother then laid him in an ark 
of bulrushes, and placed it upon the banks of the river. He was dis- 
covered by Pharaoh's daughter, who sent his sister Miriam to fetch 
an Hebrew nurse, and she called her own mother, who was charged 
by the princess to nurse the infant. His royal patroness adopted him 
as her son, and gave him an education worthy of that dignity. 

When he grew up, Moses beheld with indignation the oppression 
and misery of his brethren, and having slain an Egyptian who abused 
one of the Hebrews, he sought an asylum in the land of Midian. 
Here he continued forty years, when he received the divine commis- 
sion to the Egyptian court. He was joined by his brother Aaron ; 
and on their arrival, they acquainted the elders of Israel with their 
mission. At their audience they demanded in the name of " Jehovah, 
the God of Israel," the dismission of the Hebrews. The answer 
from Pharaoh was "I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go," 
and at the same time he ordered the task-masters to increase the work 
of the Hebrews. 

Invested with divine authority, Moses again approached the pres- 
ence of Pharaoh and made the same demand. He threw down his rod 
and it became a serpent ; and by the command of God he stretched out 
the same rod and the waters were turned into blood. After this an in- 
numerable swarm of frogs consumed the fruit of the ground, and the 
houses and even the beds of the Egyptians swarmed with them; then 
he turned the dust into venomous flies and innumerable quantities of 
lice ; he afflicted them with terrible boils, breaking out with blains on 
man and beast. Still Pharaoh refused to let them go; but the smiting 
of the first-born of all the Egyptians, from the first-born of Pharaoh, 
to that of the captive, and also of their beasts, struck such terror into 
the Egyptians that they were glad to rid themselves of the Hebrews, 
and hastened their departure. On this memorable night was the Pass- 
over instituted ; for the Israelites, by the command of God, had sprin- 
kled their doors with the blood of a lamb, as a sign for the destroying 
angel to pass by. 

(B. C. 1491.) Moses now marched at the head of this vast multi- 
tude, consisting of 600,000 men, besides women and children, their 
servants, and their cattle, under the guidance of God, in a pillar of cloud 
by day, and by night in a pillar of fire. They took with them the 
bones of Joseph, and when they came near the Red Sea, they saw 
Pharaoh and his army in their rear, for he was determined to pursue 
them and oblige them to return. But Moses, by divine appointment, 
stretched out his hand towards the sea, and the waters were divided so 
that the Israelites went over on dry ground. The Egyptians with im- 
pious rage pursued them into the sea, and were all drowned, while the 
Hebrews landed safe on the opposite shore. (See engraving at the be- 
ginning of the History of the Jews.) 

His education. — What occasioned his flight to Midian? — His return to Egypt? 
What were the ten plagues of Egypt ?— The Passover ?— What caused the libera 
tion of the Israelites? — Whatbelel the Egyptians in the Red Sea? 



THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 21 

The Israelites being thus miraculously delivered, marched through 
the desert, and were sustained by divine power. When they came to 
the foot of mount Sinai (B. C. 1491,) they heard the voice of the De- 
ity deliver audily the ten commandments. Moses went up into the 
mount, and was there forty days, during which time he had two tables 
of testimony written with the finger of God. When Moses went 
down, and saw the people dancing round a molten calf, which Aaron 
at their request had made, he grieved at their apostacy, and indignant- 
ly threw down the tables of stone and broke them. The people after- 
wards repented of their idolatry, and the Lord graciously gave them 
two other tables ; and Moses demanded of them a free-will offering for 
the tabernacle which God had commanded him to rear. The people 
gladly assisted in this work, and in a short time it was completed, (B. 
C. 1490,) and Aaron and his sons were set apart for the ministry. 

Moses sent some spies to examine the Promised Land, who return- 
ed, after an absence of forty days, with an unfavourable report. This 
irritated the minds of the people, and they rose in a tumult to stone Mo- 
ses and Aaron. But Joshua and Caleb, two of his spies, endeavoured 
to appease them, and wished them to march immediately into Canaan. 
But their courage failed, and God declared that none of the Israelites, 
above twenty years old, except Joshua and Caleb, should enter Canaan. 
Not even Moses, for he had displeased the Lord, and was allowed only 
to see the Promised Land. Accordingly they wandered about the wil- 
derness for forty years, during which time this was fulfilled. (B. C. 1426.) 
Moses died in the hundred and twentieth year of his age, in view of 
Canaan. 

CHAPTER 5. 

THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 

Joshua (B. C. 1451,) succeeded Moses ; and when they arrived on 
the borders of Canaan, he sent out spies, who entered Jericho, and 
found that the approach of the Israelites had struck terror into the in- 
habitants. On their return, Joshua passed over Jordan in a miraculous 
manner, and marched to Jericho. This was a walled city, and the Is- 
raelites, by the command of God, marched round the walls for seven 
days, carrying the ark of the covenant, blowing with rams' horns, and 
shouting. On the seventh day the walls fell down before them, and 
all the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, who had received the 
spies, were slain. After this they advanced to Ai, which place was 
subdued. 

In a glorious victory over the Canaanites, at the word of Joshua, 
" the sun stood still, and the moon 9tayed, until the people had avenged 
themselves upon their enemies." Having made a division of the Land 
of Promise among the people, Joshua assembled the tribes at Shechem, 

On what Mount were the two tables delivered ? — Relate the circumstances. — 
How long did the Israelites wander in the wilderness ? — Where ? — When and where 
did Moses die 1 — Who led the Israelites over Jordan into Canaan ? — How was Je 
richo taken ?— What miracle was performed by Joshua ? 



22 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

renewed the covenant between them and God, and reminding them of 
past favours, he exhorted them to adhere to their engagement. He 
died in the one hundred and tenth year of his age, and was buried in 
the border of his inheritance in Timnath-serah. 

After this (B. C. 1426,) the tribe of Judah, under the command of 
Calob, took and burnt Jerusalem, and obliged the inhabitants of Gaza, 
Askelon, and Ekron, to submit to them. The other tribes did not en- 
tirely destroy the Canaanites, but imposed a tribute upon them. They 
lived among them, and married the Canaanitish maids, and worshipped 
their idols. This was a cause of great disasters to them, and they met 
with continual defeats. The tribe of Benjamin (B. C. 1406,) was ex- 
tinguished, except six hundred men, in a war which they waged against 
the other tribes. Repenting of this afterwards, the Israelites endea- 
voured to restore their fallen tribe, and at length succeeded. 

On account of their wickedness and idolatry, God delivered them 
into the power of the Assyrians, whom they served eight years, when 
Othniel, Caleb's nephew, delivered them, and was judge forty years. 
After his death they were subject to the Moabites eighteen years. Ehud 
slew Eglon, king of Moab, and restored liberty to Israel, which they 
enjoyed eighty years. After this, the Canaanites brought them under 
slavery for twenty years ; they were then delivered by Barak and De- 
borah, who ruled over them forty years. The Midianites were their 
next masters, in whose power they were seven years ; Gideon marched 
against the forces of Midian, gave them a complete overthrow, and slew 
their generals. He enjoyed the government forty years. Abimelech, 
(B. C. 1236,) Gideon's natural son, slew his seventy brothers, except 
Jotham; usurped the authority, and exercised it in a tyrannical manner. 
He met his death at the siege of Thebez. 

Jephthah, one of their judges, marching against the king of the 
Ammonites, vowed, if he should be successful in his expedition, to 
sacrifice the living being that should first meet him on his return. 
Having returned in triumph, his daughter, an only child, came out to 
congratulate him on his success. When apprized of her father's rash- 
ness, she begged a respite of two months to bewail her youth, and then 
calmly met her fate. 

After this, when the Israelites were tributary to the Philistines, God 
raised up Samson, a mighty man, who made great slaughter among 
them, and, on one occasion, slew a thousand Philistines with the jaw- 
bone of an ass. While he kept the cause of his great strength secret, 
his enemies had no power over him. But being enamoured of Delilah, 
a Philistine woman, he imparted the secret to her. This proved fatal 
to him ; but he slew more of the Philistines at his death, than he had 
slain during his life. 

Eli, the high priest, then assumed the government. He had two 
sons, Hophni and Phineas, who were guilty of injustice towards men, 

Where, and at what age did he die ? — What occurred under the command of 
Caleb?— What occurred under Othniel ?— Ehud ?— Gideon ?— Where did he die?— 
What of Jephthah? — Samson, and the Philistines? — What is recorded of Eli am] 
his sons ? 



THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 23 

and of impiety towards God. They were slain in a battle against the 
Philistines, and the ark of the covenant was carried away by the ene- 
my. When the sad tidings reached the aged Eli, he was so distressed 
at them that he fell from his seat and died, in the ninety-eighth year 
of his age. After the Philistines had detained the ark four months, 
they voluntarily returned it to the Hebrews. 

Samuel, (B. C. 1096,) the prophet, succeeded Eli in the government, 
which he maintained with so much integrity and satisfaction, that when 
he appointed his two sons to succeed him, the people demanded a king, 
alleging that his sons were unworthy of the succession. Samuel re- 
monstrated with them ; but finding all to no purpose, he proclaimed 
Saul, the son of Kish, king of Israel. 

No sooner was Saul (B. C. 1095,) invested with the regal dignity 
than he commenced a successful expedition against the king of the Am- 
morites, which gained him the respect of all his subjects. This was 
followed by several victories over the Philistines. But being sent 
against the Amalekites, he presumed to act contrary to the directions 
of the prophet, and he was informed that the kingdom should be taken 
from him, and given to a neighbour more worthy of the dignity. Some 
time after this, God sent the prophet to Bethlehem to anoint David, 
son of Jesse, for the sovereignty. 

Saul being grievously afflicted with a demoniacal disorder, his 
friends had David summoned .to court, to endeavour by his skill on the 
harp, to revive the spirits of the prince. In this he was successful ; 
and when Saul seemed recovered, he obtained permission of Jesse to 
detain his son in his service. (B. C. 1069.) In a contest with Goliath, 
the champion of the Philistines, David displayed such signal valour 
and intrepidity, that the land resounded with his praise. This roused 
the jealousy of his royal master, who sought means to rid himself of 
this victorious champion. He gave him his daughter in marriage, on 
condition of his destroying 600 of the Philistines. He sought to en- 
trap him by various means, and he even endeavoured to despatch him 
with his own javelin. Jonathan the king's son, had contracted an in- 
timate friendship with David, and assisted him in escaping the king's 
treachery. David, to avoid the vengeance of Saul, sought an asylum 
with the Philistine kings. Samuel, the prophet, died, (B. C. 1059,) 
and was buried in Raman, in the eighteenth year of Saul's reign. 

Saul, going against the Philistines, was greatly troubled at the su- 
periority of the enemy, and went in disguise to a necromantic woman, 
desiring her to raise him up Samuel. The king was informed that he, 
together with his sons, would fall in the battle. Saul returned to the 
camp, and in the engagement the Hebrews were defeated with great 
slaughter, (B. C. 1055,) and the king and all his sons, except Ishbo- 
sheth, were among the slain. Abner, Saul's general, proclaimed this sur- 
viving son king. David was already acknowledged sovereign by one 

Who was Samuel, and who was proclaimed king by him? — Why? — What is 
related of Saul and his victories ? — On what conditions did David obtain Saul's 
daughter? — When did Samuel die?— Relate Saul's death, and David's advance- 
ment to the crown. 



24 HISTORY OP THE JEWS. 

tribe at Hebron, and thus a civil war commenced, which raged for some 
time with great violence. But at length Ishbosheth was assassinated 
by the treachery of his friends, and David received homage from all 
the tribes of Israel. 

CHAPTER 6. 
DAVID AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 

When he was firmly settled on the throne, David overran the land 
of the Philistines, and annexed it to his own dominions. He also sub- 
dued the Moabites, the Syrians, and the Idumeans. He took Mephibo- 
shetb, son of Jonathan, to his court, and honoured him at his table. 
The Hebrews defeated the Ammonites, with a great slaughter, and be- 
sieged them in their capital. But David fell into a grievous sin, for 
being enamoured of the wife of Uriah, an officer in the army, he pro- 
cured his death at the siege, in order to gratify his passion. (B. C. 1035.) 
This flagrant injustice induced God to send Nathan the prophet with a 
reproof in the parable of the ewe lamb. David became sensible of his 
guilt, and implored forgiveness of the Lord. 

In the mean time Joab, David's general, had been successful against 
the Ammonites, and had taken their capital. The troubles of David 
seem now to begin, for one son having committed incest, was slain by 
his brother. Absalom, his son, rebelled against him, and compelled 
him to flee for his life. (B. C. 1023.) This wicked son was slain in 
a battle fought against his father, who, on hearing of his son's death, 
exclaimed, "O my son Absalom; my son, my son ! would to God I 
had died for thee." Having quelled this conspiracy, David returned 
to his palace, and died in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after a reign 
of forty years. 

Solomon succeeded his father, and took off all he had reason to sus- 
pect of infidelity. He married the daughter of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, 
and began his reign with prudence and moderation. God appeared to 
him in a dream, and told him to name what he desired to have. The 
young king begged wisdom and discernment to govern his subjects 
wisely. He obtained his request, and received a more than ordinary 
shareof understanding and wisdom. (B. C. 1013.) The Hebrews now- 
enjoyed a long peace ; and Solomon made an agreement with Hiram, 
king of Tyre, for timber to build the temple for which David had made 
preparations. 

The foundations were laid in the fourth year of his reign, and in 
seven years, this stupendous pile of building was completed at an enor- 
mous expense. Solomon (B. C. 1005,) dedicated it to the Almighty, 
and removed the ark of the covenant, and the tabernacle into it with 
great pomp. He encouraged commerce, and built a numerous fleet, 

Fate of Ishbosheth. — David's final success. — What nations did David subdue ? 
— What of Mephibosheth ? — Into what sin did David fall? — How was it re- 
proved ? — What sons rebelled ? — What was David's age, &c? — Who succeeded 
David? — For what did Solomon pray? — What followed ? — When were the 
foundations of the Temple laid ? — When was it dedicated ? 



DAVID AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 25 

which traded to India and Ethiopia, and brought immense riches. As 
he advanced in years, he married a multitude of wives without regarding 
either the law of Moses, or of what country they were, and out of his 
affection for them, he followed their idolatries, and gave into their fo- 
reign customs. This apostacy drew the anger of God upon him, and 
he was informed that his posterity should lose the kingdom, except the 
tribe of Judah. He died in the fortieth year of his reign. 

(B. C. 975.) Rehoboam succeeded Solomon, and in an assembly at 
Shechem declared his determination of ruling them with more rigour 
than his father. This incensed the people so much against him that 
ten tribes revolted, and ordained Jeroboam king over them. Only the 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin submitted to Rehoboam, who resided at 
Jerusalem. Jeroboam, being apprehensive that if his subjects went to 
Jerusalem to worship in the temple, they would desert to his rival, set 
up two golden heifers, the one at Bethel, and the other at Dan, and 
appointed priests from among the meanest of his subjects. Those that 
abhorred his impiety, fled to Jerusalem, and greatly augmented the 
number of Rehoboam's subjects. 

Displeased at the irreligious practices of Rehoboam, the Almighty 
permitted Shishak, (B. C. 972,) king of Egypt, to invade his dominions, 
and he advanced to the gates of Jerusalem. The Egyptian took the 
city without resistance ; pillaged the temple, and carried off the riches 
of the king in great abundance. Rehoboam died after a reign of seven- 
teen years, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, and was succeeded by 
his son Abijah. 

In the mean time, Jeroboam continued in his impiety, and on the 
succession of Abijah, to the throne of Judah, he marched against the 
young king with a powerful army. (B. C. 958.) Jeroboam was com- 
pletely defeated with a great loss. Abijah did not long survive his vic- 
tory ; and left his throne to his son Asa. Jeroboam died after a reigc 
of twenty-two years, and was succeeded by his son JVadab, who resem • 
bled his father in impiety and wickedness. He had reigned only two 
years, when he was slain in a conspiracy made against him by Baasha, 
who usurped the authority, and destroyed all the race of Jeroboam. 

(B. C. 955.) Asa, king of Jerusalem, was remarkable for his piety 
and goodness. In the tenth year of his reign, Zera, king of Ethiopia, 
marched against him with a numerous army. Asa, relying on the God 
of Israel, attacked the enemy, and overthrew them with great slaughter 
After this, Baasha, the usurper who reigned over the ten tribes, invaded 
the kingdom of Asa. This prince made an alliance with the king of 
Damascus, who assisted him against Baasha. 

Ei,ah, the son and successor of Baasha, when he had reigned two 
years, fell a victim to the treachery of Zimri, who survived his base- 
ness only seven days. 

Omri then assumed the government over the ten tribes. He enjoyed 
his authority twelve years, and was succeeded by his son Ahab. The 

Who succeeded Solomon? — Who ruled over Israel? — What was his sin? — 
Who invaded Jerus&Jem and pillaged the temple ? — What wars took place be- 
tween the kings of Judah and Israel ? — What result ? — What is recorded of Asa ? 
3 



26 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

good king of Judah, Asa, died after a happy reign of forty-one years, 
and left his kingdom to his son, Jehoshaphat. 

(B. C. 918.) Ahab, the king of Israel, exceeded his predecessors 
in impiety and wickedness. He espoused Jezebel, a Sidonian princess, 
who set up her foreign idols, and appointed priests and prophets for her 
idolatries, and slew those of the God of Israel. Naboth had a field 
adjoining that of the king, who wished to purchase it to join to his 
own. Naboth was not disposed to part with it, and Jezebel ordered 
Naboth to be stoned, upon pretence of blasphemy to God, and disloy- 
alty to the king. As a just punishment for these infamous practices, 
the Almighty declared by his prophet Elijah, that both Ahab and his 
wife should be slain, and that dogs should lick his blood, and eat the 
body of Jezebel, which was fulfilled in the seventeenth year of Je- 
hoshaphat, king of Judah. Jehoshaphat triumphed over a league 
formed against him, and died in the twenty-fifth year of his reign. 

(B. C. 896.) Ahaziah succeeded his father Ahab, on the throne of 
Israel. But happening to hurt himself by a fall, he sent to the God 
of Ekron, to inquire about his recovery. 

Elijah the prophet intercepted the messengers, and bid them tell 
the king, that because he had despised the God of Israel, and had sent 
to inquire of an idol, he would not recover; accordingly, Ahaziah died 
in a short time after, and was succeeded by his brother Joram, (B. C. 
889.) 

In the reign of this prince, Benhadad, the Syrian general, besieged 
Samaria, and reduced the place to such dreadful extremity, that an ass's 
head was sold for eighty pieces of silver, and mothers were compelled 
to eat their own offspring. In this distress, God struck such terror into 
the hearts of the besiegers, that they fled with precipitation, and left 
such plenty of provisions in their camp, that a measure of fine flout 
was sold for a shekel, and every thing else in proportion, in the gat6 
of Samaria. 

CHAPTER VII. 

JEHU, AMAZIAH, AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. 

Jehu, who was anointed king by the prophet of the Lord, slew 
seventy of Ahab's sons, and forty-two princes of the house of Judah ; 
he put Jezebel to death, and destroyed the worshippers of her idols. 
He did not utterly abolish idolatry, out allowed the people to worship 
the golden heifers. However, as a reward for his zeal for God, he was 
assured (B. C. 856) that his posterity should reign over Israel for four 
generations. He died in the twenty-eighth year pf his reign. At the 
time he was zealous for the Jewish worship, Mhaliah, daughter of 
Jezebel, reigned in Jerusalem, and she endeavoured to extinguish the 
,house of David; but Joash escaped through the faithfulness of his 
friends, and in the seventh year of her reign, Athaliah was deposed, 

Ahab ? — Jehoshaphat ? — What of Jezebel, and of Naboth 's vineyard ? — Jeze- 
bel's fate? — What did Elijah pronounce against Ahaziah? and what befel the 
Syrian army ? — What is related of Jehu ? — Athaliah ? 



JEHU, AMAZIAII, AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. 27 

and Joash proclaimed king. This prince forsook the worship of the 
true God, and was assassinated by his servants, after he had reigned 
forty years. 

(B. C. 838.) Amaziah, his son, succeeded him on the throne of 
Judah, who brought the murderers of his father to justice. The 
beginning of his reign promised well ; but his subsequent wickedness 
drew upon him captivity and distress. He was slain by a conspiracy 
in the twenty-ninth year of his reign. 

During the latter part of this reign, Jeroboam II. reigned in Samaria 
He was the cause of great troubles to his subjects ; but afterwards he 
restored the kingdom of Israel to its former splendour. (B. C. 772.) 
He reigned forty-one years, and was succeeded by his son Zechariah, 
who was treacherously slain by Shall um, after a reign of six months. 
From this time, the history of Israel is replete with treasons, murders, 
and anarchy. Tiglath Pileser king of Assyria, in the reign of Pekah, 
overran the country beyond Jordan, and carried many of the inhabitants 
captive into his own kingdom. 

While Israel was thus languishing under cruel tyrants, Uzziah, son 
of Amaziah, sat on the throne of Judah. He raised his kingdom to 
affluence and prosperity, and made several successful expeditions. 
This prince, presuming to usurp the priest's office, was struck with a 
leprosy, which proved fatal to him. He was succeeded by Jotham, 
his son, who was eminent for his virtue, for his pious zeal in beautify- 
ing the temple, and for repairing the walls of Jerusalem. He died in 
the sixteenth year of his reign. 

Ahaz succeeded Jotham, his father, on the throne of Judah. By his 
impieties he drew upon his country an invasion by the allied armies of 
Israel and Syria. The Israelites slew one hundred and twenty thou- 
sand of the troops of Judah, and took two hundred thousand prisoners. 
They were met by the prophet Obed, who persuaded the Israelites to 
release their captives. The reign of Ahaz was a scene of vices, im- 
pieties, and misfortunes. 

Pekah, king of Israel, was despatched through the treachery of Ho- 
shea, who usurped the authority. In the ninth year of his reign, he 
was taken captive by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, and carried, toge- 
ther with the ten tribes, into Media. (B. C. 721.) He was the last 
king of Israel. 

Hezekiah had succeeded his father Ahaz on the throne of Judah. 
This prince esteemed the worship of God of the greatest importance. 
He assembled the priests and Levites, proclaimed a passover, and in- 
vited to the temple all the worshippers of the true God. In the four- 
teenth year of his reign, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invaded Judah 
with a mighty army, defying the God of Israel, and sent troops under 
the command of Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh, to destroy Jerusalem. 
But the angel of God cut off in one night an hundred and eighty-five 

Joash? — Mention the events of the reigns of Amaziah. — Jeroboam [I. — Za- 
chariah. — What is recorded of Uzziah ? — Jotham ? — Ahaz ? — What victory did 
the Israelites gain over Judah? — What, befel the Assyrian army in the davsof 
Hezekiah ? 



28 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

thousand Assyrians ; and their generals marched back to their own land. 
After this Hezekiah was dangerously ill ; and Isaiah was commission- 
ed to declare that his disease would prove fatal. The king implored 
that his life might be prolonged : the Almighty granted his request ; 
and as a token of his life, the shadow of the sun went back ten degrees. 
He died in the twenty-ninth year of his reign. 

(B. C. 698.) Manasseh then ascended the throne, and as a punish- 
ment for his diabolical sacrilege, profaneness, and barbarous cruelty, 
his country was laid waste, and himself led captive to Babylon. He 
there humbled himself on account of his vices, and was afterwards 
restored to his kingdom ; when he became as remarkable for his vir- 
tues, as he had been for his vices. (B. C. 643.) Amon, his son, suc- 
ceeded, who imitated his father only in his wickedness. He perished 
by a conspiracy in the second year of his reign. 

Josiah (B. C. 633,) ascended the throne at the age of eight years, 
and his long reign was a series of piety and benevolence. He sup- 
pressed idolatry, beautified the temple, and restored its worship to its 
ancient splendour. He lost his life in attempting to hinder ths Egyp- 
tians passing through Judea. 

Jehoahaz then assumed the government; but after enjoying the dig- 
nity three months, he was deposed by the Egyptian king, who trans- 
ferred the crown to Jehoiakim, and imposed a heavy tribute on the land. 
He paid this tribute for three years, and then revolted. Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king of Assyria, overran the whole country, slew the king, and 
pillaged the temple of its most valuable vessels, which he carried to 
Babylon. 

(B. C. 599.) Jehoiachin succeeded him in his throne and in his vices. 
After reigning three months, he, together with his court, was carried 
captive to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar then appointed Zedekiah, the 
late king's uncle, to be king, on condition of his paying a certain tri- 
bute. Having observed the oath for eight years, he revolted, Jerusa- 
lem was taken, and Zedekiah had his eyes put out, and was led captive 
to Babylon. The city and temple were pillaged, and the most stately 
edifices burnt to the ground; and the inhabitants were led in triumph 
to Babylon. Thus the kingdom of Israel was destroyed, after it had 
stood three hundred and eighty-eight years from the revolt of the ten 
tribes, and one hundred and thirty-four from the destruction of Samaria. 

The Jews continued in slavery seventy years, (B. C. 536,) when, as 
had been predicted by Isaiah, Cyrus allowed them to return to the land 
of their nativity, and to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple of God. The 
number of those that returned was forty-two thousand four hundred and 
sixty-two. But the Cutheans, who had been planted in Samaria, when 
the ten tribes were carried into captivity, succeeded in hindering the 
building for some years. But under the reign of Darius, (B. C. 518,) 
Zorobabel obtained the royal consent, the temple was rebuilt, and dedi- 
cated with great solemnity. 

Relate what change took place in Manasseh. — What king of Assyria reduced 
the people into captivity ? — What befel Zedekiah ? — Whither were the people 
led captive ? — How long were the Jews in captivity ? — By whom and by whose 
command was the temple rebuilt? 



XERXES FAVOURS THE JEWS. 29 



CHAPTER 8. 

XERXES FAVOURS THE JEWS — MACEDONIAN DOMINION IN 
JUDEA. 

Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, was well disposed to the 
Jews. He commissioned Ezra, the priest, to return with as many of 
his countrymen as were desirous to go. Ezra renewed the Jewish 
worship, and collected and revised the sacred books ; after him the 
king permitted Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. In the reign of Arta- 
xerxes, the consort of Esther, the Jewish nation was on the point of de- 
struction through the baseness of Haman, an Amalekite, in favour at 
the Persian court. But at the intercession of the queen, her country 
was spared, and Haman was executed. 

(B. C. 373.) The government of Judea was then annexed to the Sy- 
rian prefecture ; and the high priests were entrusted with the adminis- 
tration of affairs. In the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, John, the high 
priest, quarrelled with his brother Jesus, and slew him in the temple. 
Bagoses, the governor cf Syria, then polluted the temple, and imposed 
a tribute on the Jews for every sacrifice that was offered. During the 
priesthood of Jaddua, Alexander the Great, having vanquished Darius, 
sent to Jerusalem to demand provision for his army at the siege of 
Tyre; their refusal incurred the resentment of that prince; but the pru- 
dence of the priests, who went out of the city to meet Alexander, avert- 
ed the threatened danger. 

At the partition of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy (B. C. 320,) 
invaded Judea, took Jerusalem by treachery on the Sabbath day, and 
led great multitudes of the Jews into Egypt. Being confident of their 
fidelity, he distributed many of them into garrisons, and admitted them 
to great privileges at Alexandria. On the succession of Philadelphus 
to the throne of Egypt, he released the Jews, to the number of a hun- 
dred and twenty thousand ; and he procured a translation of their law 
for his library. About this time died Simon, the high priest, whose 
piety and integrity procured him the surname of the Just : Eleazer, 
his brother, then succeeded to the high priesthood. 

On the succession of Ptolemy Philopater to the throne of Egypt, 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, endeavoured to wrest Palestine 
from his hands ; and after the death of Philopater, the Jews were com- 
pelled to submit to Antiochus, (B. C. 204,) and at his death to his son 
Seleucus. On the death of Onias, the high priest, the Jews quarrelled 
among themselves about the succession. One of the parties fled to Se- 
leucus, who marched against Jerusalem, and having taken the city, he 
pillaged the temple of its immense treasures, (B. C. 168,) he prohi- 
bited the Jews from observing the laws of their country, and the inhu- 

By whom were Nehemiah and Ezra encouraged to rebuild the walls of Jerusa- 
lem, and renew the Jewish worship? — To what state was the Jewish government 
annexed ? — By what act was Alexander the Great appeased ? — Relate the par- 
ticulars of the Ptolemies towards the Jews. — Who pillaged the temple and pun 
ished the people ? 



30 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

man tyrant sacrificed those who presumed to disobey his orders. Ho 
built a citadel that commanded the temple, and put into it a garrison of 
Macedonians. 

(B. C. 167.) At length Mattatkias, a priest of Jerusalem, with his Jive 
sons, and a few adherents, routed the generals of the tyrant, and de- 
stroyed the idols that Antiochus had set up. Judas Maccabeus, his eld- 
est son, succeeded him, and struck great terror into the enemy, and slew 
their generals. After gaining three successive victories, he marched 
into Jerusalem, purified the temple, and offered the appointed sacrifices 
with great solemnity. He rebuilt the walls of the city, and erected 
fortifications in the neighbourhood. Antiochus Eupator having suc- 
ceeded his father in Syria, marched against Judas, and besieged him 
in the temple at Jerusalem. Having spent much time at the siege, 
Antiochus made a treaty with Judas, but the perfidious Syrian, contrary 
to his oath, ordered his troops to demolish the walls. He despatched 
Menelaus, the high priest, and gave the high priesthood to Alcimus. 

Demetrius, the successor of Antiochus, sent Bacchides and Alcimus 
against Judas. When they arrived in Judea, they endeavoured to take 
the Jewish general by treachery ; but Judas, being aware of their base- 
ness, eluded their intentions. Alcimus applied to the Syrian court for 
more assistance. The king sent Nicanor, with numerous forces, who 
advanced to Jerusalem, and threatened to pull down the temple, unless 
they would deliver Judas to him. This heroic chief, however, attacked 
the Syrian general, and cut both him and all his troops to pieces, so 
that not one escaped. After this glorious victory the Jews enjoyed 
peace a short time, during which Judas contracted an alliance with the 
Romans, who had the treaty engraven in brass and deposited in the 
Capitol. 

When Demetrius was informed of the death of Nicanor, he des- 
patched Bacchides with an army into Judea. In an engagement, Judas, 
being deserted by many of his troops, fell fighting valiantly against 
Bacchides. Jonathan succeeded his brother Judas in the command of 
the Jewish army. (B. C. 160.) Having collected all his adherents, he 
went into the wilderness, whither Bacchides followed them, and at- 
tacked them on their Sabbath ; but he was compelled to retire to Jeru- 
salem, with the loss of two thousand men, and Jonathan escaped across 
the Jordan. Bacchides fortified all the principal cities in Judea, and 
put garrisons into them who made frequent sallies on the defenceless 
Jews. He then shut up the sons of the principal Jews in the citadel, 
at Jerusalem, as hostages, and afterwards returned to the king. But 
the enemies of Jonathan again persuaded Demetrius to send Bacchides 
against Jonathan. Victory once more decided for the Jewish general, 
and a treaty was made between him and Bacchides. Jonathan after 
this governed Judea, and restored peace to his country. 

(B. C. 153.) In the dispute between Demetrius and Alexander Ba- 
las, the former feared lest Jonathan remembering how he had formerly 

What family of Jews arose against the Syrians ? — What did Judas, the heroic 
Jewish chief, effect ? — What followed ? — What success had Jonathan over the 
general Bacchides ? — Who governed Judea ? 



DOMINION OF THE ROMANS IN JUDEA. 31 

treated him, should join his competitor ; he therefore sought the friend- 
ship of Jonathan, by permitting him to raise an army, and to receive 
back the hostages in the citadel at Jerusalem. Alexander, wishing to 
outvie his rival, conferred on Jonathan the high priesthood, and sent 
him some rich presents. When Alexander obtained the crown of Syria, 
he honoured Jonathan in a distinguished manner. But the Syrians re- 
volted in favour of young Demetrius, and Apollonius, governor of Ccelo- 
Syria, marched against Jonathan, (B. C. 148,) but he was routed with 
great slaughter of his troops. Alexander, as a reward for his bravery, 
sent Jonathan a magnificent present, and allowed him Ekron, with its 
toparchy, for his inheritance. After maintaining the government of the 
Jews for seventeen years he was treacherously murdered by Trypho, 
one of Alexander's generals. (B. C. 144.) 

Simon succeeded his brother' Jonathan in the high priesthood ; and 
he delivered his country from the Macedonian yoke. He also took and 
demolished the citadel at Jerusalem. Antiochus, brother of Demetrius, 
having ascended the Syrian throne, sent ambassadors to Simon to make a 
league of friendship and mutual assistance. The high priest readily ac- 
cepted their proposals, and presented Antiochus with large sums of 
money. (B. C. 139.) But this perfidious monarch soon after sent an army 
to ravage Judea and to seize Simon. However, his troops were defeated, 
and Simon made a league with the Romans. After Simon had been 
ruler of the Jews eight years, he was treacherously assassinated by 
Ptolemy, his son-in-law. The murderer also despatched two of Simon's 
sons, and endeavoured to take John, surnamed Hyrcanus ; but he es- 
caped from him, and assumed his father's office. 

CHAPTER 9. 
DOMINION OF THE ROMANS IN JUDEA—ASMONEAN DYNASTY. 

Antiochus then invaded Judea, and having ravaged the country, he 
besieged Hyrcanus in Jerusalem, which he reduced to a dreadful state 
by famine. Antiochus then agreed to make peace with the Jews, on 
condition that they should deliver up their arms, pay tribute for Joppa, 
and should give him hostages, and five hundred talents of silver. After 
the death of Antiochus, the Jewish governor delivered his country from 
the Syrian yoke. (B.C. .130.) He also took Samega, and the neigh- 
bouring cities, Shechem and Gerizim; and demolished a temple built 
by Sanballat. Hyrcanus also renewed the league with the Romans ; 
and he governed Judea with prudence and success for thirty years, 
during which period Jerusalem and the temple were restored to their 
ancient splendour and privileges. 

He was succeeded by his eldest son, Jristobulus, who claimed sove- 
reignty, and assumed to himself the diadem. He barbarously mur- 
dered his mother and brother. He died after a short but cruel reign, 
and his brother Alexander was appointed to succeed him. Alexander 

What occurred between Jonathan and Alexander Balas ? — What success had 
Simon? —With whom did he league? — How long did Hyrcanus govern Jerusa- 
lem? 



32 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

led his army to besiege Ptolemais ; but he was compelled to raise the 
siege for fear of Ptolemy Lathyrus, and received a terrible defeat on 
the banks of the Jordan. Alexander then turned his arms against 
Ccelo-Syria; he besieged and took Gaza, and abandoned the city to the 
fury of his troops. After his return to Jerusalem he was insulted by 
his subjects, who pelted him with citrons, as he was sacrificing upon 
the altar. He was so enraged at their insolence that he slew about six 
thousand of the Jews. On account of his cruelties, he rendered him- 
self odious to his subjects. To reduce them to submission, he slew 
thousands of them, which exasperated them so much the more against 
him. By his excessive debauchery, he brought on himself a disease 
which terminated fatally in the twenty-seventh year of his reign. 

Alexander left behind him two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, the 
elder of whom was appointed high priest. (B. C. 107.) Alexandra, 
the widow of the late -king, assumed the government; but she was 
beset by the Pharisees, who compelled her to grant the most exorbitant 
demands. The queen becoming dangerously ill, Aristobulus made an 
attempt at seizing the government, and immediately after Alexander's 
death, the two brothers commenced a civil war about the succession. 
(B. C. 69.) Hyrcanus was compelled to resign the regal dignity to his 
younger brother, and to retire to his private estate. But Antipater, an 
Idumean, endeavoured to inflame the minds of the Jews against their 
new king. He persuaded Hyrcanus to apply to Aretas, king of Ara- 
bia, who marched with an army against Aristobulus, defeated him in 
a battle, and besieged him in the temple. In this extremity, Scaurus, 
the Roman general, at the request of Aristobulus, obliged Aretas to 
raise the siege and to quit Judea. (B. C. 65.) Pompey cited the two 
brothers to plead their cause before him at Damascus. Having heard 
the complaints of each, he dismissed them with an assurance that when 
he came again into their country he would settle their affairs. 

Aristobulus, however, without waiting for the determination of 
Pompey, marched into Judea. This greatly incensed the Roman gene- 
ral, and he put Aristobulus into prison, and besieged Jerusalem. Pom- 
pey's army was admitted into the city, and the party of Hyrcanus 
delivered both the city and the king's palace to Pompey. The parti- 
sans of Aristobulus were closely besieged in the temple. However, 
the priests did not desist from offering the usual sacrifices, though 
numbers of them were slain at the altars. Twelve thousand Jews 
were slain, and Pompey penetrated into the inmost part of the temple. 
He restored the high priesthood to Hyrcanus, and then carried Aristo- 
bulus and his four children in triumph to Rome. 

Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, escaped from Rome, and, pass- 
ng through Judea, collected numerous forces: but he was defeated in 
the vicinage of Jerusalem, by the Romans. Gabinius, the Roman 
general, divided Judea into five districts, and appointed a separate 

What was the conduct, and what w ? ere the wars of Alexander? — Did not Pom- 
pey interfere between the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus ? — and hi what 
manner? — How did Pompey treat the Jews in Jerusalem? — What Roman <ii 
vided Judea into districts? 



ASMONEAN DYNASTY. 33 

council for each. Thus, the Jews were delivered from a pontifical 
monarchy, and were governed by an aristocracy. Cassius after this 
pillaged the temple of its most valuable ornaments. 

When Julius Caesar had taken Rome he set Aristobulus at liberty, 
and sent him with two legions to settle the affairs of Syria. (B. C. 49.) 
But Pompey's party destroyed Aristobulus by poison ; and the body, 
after lying in state for some time, was buried in the royal sepulchre at 
Jerusalem. His son, Alexander, was beheaded at Antioch by order of 
Scipio. Antipater rendered Caesar considerable assistance in his war 
against Egypt, and was the principal cause of obtaining a glorious vic- 
tory for the Romans. At the conclusion of that war, Caesar confirmed 
Hyrcanus in the high priesthood, and bestowed on Antipater the privi- 
lege of a citizen of Rome, and a freedom from taxes everywhere. But 
Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, complained to Caesar of his father's 
fate, and implored him to restore to him the principality from which he 
had been ejected. However, Antipater defended himself so ably, that 
he was appointed procurator of Judea. 

Antipater made Phasaelus, his eldest son, governor of Jerusalem, 
and committed Galilee to Herod, his younger son, who having slain 
the captain of a band of robbers, and also many of the banditti, was 
summoned before the sanhedrim to answer for this unlawful act, and 
which the people thought was the prelude to tyranny. (B. C. 46.) 
When he stood before the sanhedrim with a body of his guards, Sameas 
boldly appeared as his accuser, and Hyrcanus, perceiving that Herod 
would be condemned, adjourned the council till the next day, and He- 
rod in the mean time retired to Damascus. He afterwards marched 
towards Jerusalem, intending to besiege the city, but he was dissuaded 
from his design by his father and brother. 

A short time after, (B. C. 44,) Malachus, a partisan of the high priest, 
having caused Antipater to be poisoned, usurped the government of Ju- 
dea. Herod resolved to revenge his father's death, and he procured 
the assassination of Malachus. When Antony arrived at Bithynia, 
ambassadors came from the Jews to accuse Phasaelus and Herod, say- 
ing that Hyrcanus had indeed the appearance of governing, but that 
these men engrossed all the power; but Antony showed so much par- 
tiality for Herod, that his accusers could not obtain a hearing, and the 
two brothers were created tetrarchs. 

(B. C. 40.) Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, having engaged the 
Parthi3ns to espouse his cause, advanced into Judea, where he was 
joined by some of the Jews; and Pacorus, the Parthian general, having 
fraudulently obtained Phasaelus and Hyrcanus in his possession, cast 
them into prison, where the high priest had his ears cut off, and Pha- 
saelus put an end to his own existence. Herod with difficulty escaped 
with his family and treasures to the citadel of Massada. Having sought 
in vain assistance of Malachus, king of Arabia, he fled to the Romans. 
He informed them of his brother's death, and the miserable condition 
to which himself was reduced, and implored their assistance. 

On whom did Caesar bestow the high priesthood ? — For what was Herod brought 
before the Sanhedrim ? — To whom did Antony show such partiality? 



34 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

The senate appointed Herod, king of the Jews, and he returned to Ju« 
dea with some force to oppose Antigonus. Having recovered his fa- 
mily and treasures which he had left in Massada, Herod theniaid siege 
to Jerusalem. Nothing was effected in the city till the following 
spring, when having espoused Mariamne, the daughter of Alexandra, 
he closely invested the city. But the Jews made a bold resistance 
against the united efforts of Herod and the Roman general ; till at 
length the city was carried by storm, (B. C. 37,) three years after he 
was invested with the regal dignity at Rome. Antigonus was led in 
chains to Rome, and was afterwards put to death by the desire of Herod. 
And thus terminated the government of the Asmoneans, who had held 
the dignity a hundred and twenty-six years. 

CHAPTER 10. 
HEROD, KING OF THE JEWS. — BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST. 

Herod collected all the gold and silver, and other valuables he could 
find in Jerusalem, that he might be able to make rich presents to the 
auxiliaries. 

Hyrcanus, the high priest, who had been detained by the Parthians, 
at the earnest solicitation of Herod, returned to Jerusalem. Herod was 
compelled, though much against his inclination, to appoint Aristobulus, 
the son of Mariamne, to the high-priesthood, who officiated with such 
benignity at the ensuing feast of tabernacles, that the multitude could 
not refrain from expressing their zeal and affection for him with joyful 
acclamations. This excited the jealousy and suspicion of Herod, and 
after the festival, he appointed persons to hold Aristobulus under the 
water when he was bathing, till he suffocated. 

Alexandra, his mother, wrote an account of this treacherous scene 
to Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and Herod was summoned to answer to 
the charge before Antony at Laodicea. But the presents of Herod had 
greater influence with his judge than the imputations of Cleopatra. 

Before he left Judea, Herod had privately charged his uncle Joseph, 
that if Antony should condemn him, he should kill Mariamne, his wife, 
of whom he was passionately fond. Joseph informed her of this in- 
junction, and when Herod returned, she reproached him with it. Sa- 
lome, the king's sister, also told him that his uncle had held criminal 
conversation with his beloved Mariamne. He ordered Joseph to be 
executed, and Alexandra to be cast into prison. 

Herod after this made a successful expedition against the Arabians, 
and having given them a terrible overthrow, he was invested with the 
government of the country. (B. C. 30.) After the defeat of Antony at 
the battle of Actium, he first put to death Hyrcanus, the last of the 
Asmoneans, and then hasted to obtain the friendship of Caesar. But 
as he could hardly expect to be successful on account of his alliance 
with Antony, he placed his wife and all his family in confinement, and 

What terminated the government of the Asmoneans ? — For what was Herod 
summoned before Antony ? — What stratagems were now discovered ? — To whom 
did Herod next pay his court? 



HEROD, KING OF THE JEWS. 35 

enjoined his brother Pheroras, if he should not return, to despatch the 
women. _ . 

He so far ingratiated himself with Csesar by his eloquence, and the 
frankness of his mind, that he held his crown more entirely and firmly 
than ever. Having conducted Caesar on his way to Egypt, and made 
magnificent presents to the conqueror and his friends, Herod returned 
into Judea. He found his domestic affairs all in disorder. Mariamne 
was grieved that he would not allow her any hopes of surviving him, 
and received him with evident signs of dissatisfaction at his success. 
Their mutual love was now turned into hatred, and not long after the 
ill-fated Mariamne suffered death for a crime of which she was alto- 
gether ignorant. (B. C. 29.) After her execution, the king's affections 
for her were rekindled with more violence than ever, and his remorse was 
so extravagant, that he would call for her as though she were alive. He 
neglected public affairs, and gave himself up to despair. 

While he was in this miserable condition, Alexandra endeavoured 
to occasion a revolt, which proved fatal to her, and to her partisans. 
Herod introduced the foreign manners, games, and standards into his 
kingdom, and this roused the indignation of his subjects, who laid 
several conspiracies for him. But the king used every precaution to 
avert the plots. 

Herod sent his two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, whom he had 
by Mariamne, to be educated at Rome ; the former of whom afterwards 
espoused Glaphyra, the daughter of Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, 
and the latter Berenice, Salome's daughter. Herod had also another 
son named Antipater, who, through the intrigues of Salome, became 
the favourite of his father. This excited the jealousy of his two 
brothers, and the breach became wider every day. At length the king 
appeared before Caesar's tribunal, and there accused his two sons, Alex- 
ander and Aristobulus, of treason. Caesar, believing them to be inno- 
cent, endeavoured to reconcile them with their father. 

But after a short time their dissensions broke out afresn, which were 
greatly increased by the malice of their enemies. Alexander was put 
into confinement, and soon after he wrote four several letters to his 
father, in which he accused, as his accomplices, Pheroras, the king's 
brother, Salome, and the whole court. This increased Herod's suspi- 
cions, and made him completely miserable, for he often fancied he saw 
his son with a drawn sword, ready to inflict the mortal wound. How- 
ever, the calumnies raised against the young prince were, beyond all 
expectation, wiped off. But the plotting malice of the courtiers soon 
alarmed Herod with fresh conspiracies. Alexander and Aristobulus, 
after being accused of treason, were strangled, according to their father's 
order. (B.C. 8.) 

But Herod had the mortification to find a real enemy in his other son, 
Antipater, who only wanted a fit opportunity to take off his father. A 
dispute arising between the king and Pheroras, the latter retired into 
his own tetrarchy in disgust, and joined Antipater in the conspiracy 

For what act was Herod distressed in mind? — Who were his sons, and whom 
did they marry ? — What befel his sons, Alexander and Aristobulus? 



3G HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

against his father. But at the death of Pheroras the whole was un- 
ravelled, and the wretched son was condemned to death. Soon after 
this, Herod fell into a grievous disease, of which he died. Before 
he expired he collected all the Jewish nobility, and ordered them to be 
confined in the hippodrome, and enjoined his sister, Salome, and her 
husband, Alexis, that as soon as he was dead they should put them all 
to death ; for he supposed that he should thereby cast a gloom over the 
rejoicing at his death. This cruel order, however, was not fulfilled. 
(A. D. 1.) Archelaus, his son, was appointed his successor. 

In the reign of Herod, Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world, was horn 
at Bethlehem, and the Eastern Magi, being directed by a wonderful ap- 
pearance in the heavens, arrived at Jerusalem, inquiring where he was 
born. The grand sanhedrim directed them to Bethlehem. Herod 
was greatly alarmed, and passed a most cruel edict, hoping thereby to 
insure the destruction of his supposed rival ; but his diabolical aim was 
frustrated. 

Herod named Archelaus, his son, as his successor ; but it was ne- 
cessary that the appointment should be seconded by Caesar, and he was 
compelled to go to Rome. Antipas, another of Herod's sons, being 
flattered by Salome that he would have the succession, also repaired 
thither. However, the Roman arbitrator appointed Archelaus ethnarch 
of one half of his father's dominions, and promised to bestow upon 
him the royal dignity, if he conducted himself worthy of that honour 
Caesar divided the other half between Philip and Antipas. 

CHAPTER 11. 
JUDEA UNDER ROMAN PROCURATORS. 

CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS CHRIST DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, AND 

FINAL DISPERSION OF THE JEWS. 

In the tenth year of Archelaus's government, the Jews, not being 
able to bear his barbarous and tyrannical usage towards them, accused 
him to Caesar, who, after a patient investigation, banished Archelaus to 
Vienne, a city of Gaul, (A. D. 6,) and taxed Judea as a Roman pro- 
vince, and it was governed by a procurator sent from Rome. One of 
these, Pontius Pilate, (A. D. 20,) introduced Caesar's effigies, which 
were upon the ensigns, into Jerusalem. The Jews earnestly solicited 
Pilate to remove these images, but he ordered his soldiers to threaten 
them with instant death if they would not depart. Multitudes of them 
laid their necks bare, saying that they would rather suffer death, than 
transgress their ancient laws. Pilate was deeply affected with their 
constancy, and carried away the hated standards. 

Jesus Christ attracted particular attention in Judea about this time, 
proving the authority of his mission by working the most wonderful 

What cruel orders did he leave at his death? — What most remarkable event 
now occurred ? — How did Csesar apportion out the Jewish dominions ? — What 
change now took place in the government ? 



CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS CHRIST. 37 

miracles : raising the dead, casting out evil spirits, healing the sick, 
giving sight to the blind, speech to the dumb, and hearing to the deaf. 
He chose for his most intimate friends twelve unlearned fishermen, and 
commissioned them to preach salvation to a lost world. The Jews, 
though they had long expected a Messiah, dragged Jesus before Pilate's 
tribunal, and obtained permission of the judge, though he pronounced 
him innocent, to crucify him. (A. D. 33.) On the third day after his 
crucifixion he rose from the grave, and afterwards showed himself to 
his disciples, and commanded them to spread his gospel over the whole 
eaith. 

On the death of the Emperor Tiberius, Agrippa, who had been cast 
into prison, was released from confinement, and appointed to be king 
of the tetrarchy of Philip, his deceased uncle. In the seventh year of 
his reign, he appeared at Caesarea in a pompous manner, and having 
made an address to the people, they cried out, " That it was the voice 
of a God, and not of a man." But the result soon proved that the 
king was mortal, for he was struck with a dreadful disease, which ter- 
minated his existence in five days. After his death, Cuspius Fadus 
was appointed procurator. He was succeeded by Tiberius Alexander, 
and this last by Cumanus. 

After this, Claudius Felix was appointed to the government of Ju- 
dea, and under his administration the affairs of the Jews grew worse 
and worse continually, for the country was filled with robbers, murder- 
ers, and impostors. To him succeeded Porcius Festus, who found Ju- 
dea so infested with robbers and impostors, that he was compelled to 
use the most signal severity. The villages were pillaged and burnt by 
the rabble. (A. D. 64.) Albinus, on his succession, endeavoured to 
keep the country in peace, by destroying many of the robbers. He was 
recalled by Nero, and Gessius Florus appointed his successor. This 
monster seemed to delight in oppressing the unhappy Jews, till they 
were compelled to take up arms against the Romans. 

Rapine and murder now became common, and Florus did all in his 
power to incite them to revolt. Above three thousand were slain at 
Jerusalem by the Roman troops, (A. D. 69,) twenty thousand were 
slain in Caesarea ; two thousand at Ptolemais, and two thousand five 
hundred at Askelon; and the Jews retaliated their cruelties on the Ro- 
mans, where they were able, and the whole province was a scene of in- 
expressible calamities. Cestius, the Syrian governor, drove the Jews 
into the capital ; but after he had besieged the city for a short time, he 
retired with some loss. The Jews then appointed Josephus, with many 
other generals, to have the command of the war, and made preparations 
for a vigorous defence. 

Nero, the emperor, then commissioned Vespasian to march into 
Judea to command the Roman army, who marched into Galilee, and 
took many of the strong cities. The Zealots (A. D. 70) invited the 

Mention the event of Christ's crucifixion. — Was not Agrippa struck with a 
fatal disease? — What was the state of Judea at this time ? — What fatal conflicts 
occurred between the Romans and the Jews? 



38 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 

Idumeans into their city for their assistance, and massacred all who 
dared to oppose them in Jerusalem. The Idumeans having taken the 
temple, slew with barbarous cruelty all they met, so that the city was 
deluged with blood and putrified bodies. 

Vespasian remained inactive in Caesarea; for he plainly saw that the 
power of the Jews greatly declined, through their intestine quarrels 
and murders. The two factions in Jerusalem were headed by John and 
Simon, who, although they endeavoured to destroy each other, yet 
united against the Romans. Vespasian being proclaimed emperor, left 
his son Titus with a select part of his army to destroy Jerusalem. 
Accordingly Titus closely besieged the city, which was reduced to a 
deplorable condition, through a dreadful famine, which was followed 
by a pestilence, and from the madness of the seditious, who spared 
neither young nor old whom they suspected. 

However, they made a desperate defence against their besiegers, and 
at first had some slight advantages ; but, notwithstanding their obsti- 
nate resistance, Titus compelled them to flee into the temple, which 
sacred edifice the conqueror was desirous to save. But it was burnt to 
the ground, while the groans of the dying echoed from the adjacent 
mountains. Titus endeavoured in vain to restrain the fury of his 
troops, and the city was razed to the ground after a siege of six months. 
(A. D. 73.) The number of those who perished during the siege 
amounted to about a million ; and the captives to almost a hundred 
thousand. The two demagogues, John and Simon, were taken before 
Titus ; the former was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and the 
latter reserved to grace the victor's triumph. 

The Roman emperor imposed an annual tribute on the Jews, and 
caused their lands to be sold for his own use. They have never been 
able to regain their ancient rights and privileges; but have wandered 
through all countries as outcasts and strangers ; but still expecting the 
Messiah. 

While the heart-rending tale of the miseries of this infatuated people 
is repeated, it is consolatory to reflect, that " there is hope in their 
end," they are not finally cast off; nor have they fallen beyond reco- 
very. These broken branches will assuredly be grafted in again, and 
partake once more of the root and fatness of the olive-tree ; or, to 
express the same animating promise of Holy Writ, without a figure — 
their privileges will be restored, their covenant blessings renewed, and 
in a far higher sense than before, Jehovah will be their God, and they 
shall be his people. 

What caused the city to be deluged with blood ? — What two factions were bent 
on each other's destruction ? — What Roman general headed the forces ? — Describe 
the conflict that razed the city. — What tributes did the Roman emperors impose ? 
— What has been the state of the Jews since the destruction of their city ? 



THE FTKENICIAN8, ETC. 39 

CHAPTER 12. 
ANCIENT NATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE JEWS. 

THE PHOENICIANS. 

The Phoenicians are supposed to have been a portion of the Ara- 
maean race, who first settled about the Persian Gulf, and engaged them- 
selves in trade and commerce. From thence a colony removed to the 
coast of Syria, and were named the Phoenicians. Their chief city was 
Sidon, and they afterwards built Tyre, on an island close upon the 
coast of the Mediterranean. We are indebted to them for the first 
attempts at commercial navigation, to which they were naturally led 
by the convenience of their harbours, and the excellent materials for 
ship-building, with which the surrounding mountains abounded. The 
fragments of Sanconiathon are the most ancient monuments of writing 
after the books of Moses. He was contemporary with Joshua, about 
1140, B. C, and 500 before the cities of Attica were united by Theseus. 

The Phoenicians (the Canaanites of Scripture) were a commercial 
people in the days of Abraham. In the time of the Hebrew Judges 
they had begun to colonize. Their first settlements were Cyprus and 
Rhodes ; thence they passed into Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain, 
and they even formed establishments on the western coast of Africa. 
But their greatest colony was that of Carthage. The Sidonians car- 
ried on an extensive commerce at the time of the Trojan war, and the 
Tyrians bade defiance to the right of Israel, Egypt, and Babylon. 

The Phoenicians appear to have made an early progress in manufac- 
tures. The glass of Sidon, the purple and fine linen of Tyre, were 
held in high estimation, luxury flourished in this almost impregnable 
island-city, whose merchants were princes. The Syrians trafficked 
largely with the eastern countries ; and in return received the products 
of the latter to circulate in the west. 

The circumnavigation of Africa, in the time of Nechos, king of 
Egypt, six centuries before the birth of our Saviour, if entitled to cred- 
it, was entrusted to the Phoenicians. 



From the earliest account of history, the Arabs have led the wander- 
ing or nomadic life, to which the nature of their country has destined 
them. The numerous tribes, under the government of their Sheikhs 
and Emirs, roam the desert apart; at one time in friendship, at another 
in hostility. The camel and the horse are their companions and sup- 
port. The strangers who penetrate their wilds have always been re- 
garded as lawful prizes. We read of them under the various names of 
Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, &c. 

What is the supposed origin of the Phoenicians ? — What was their character, 
iheir trade, colonies, &c. ? — What their manufactories, navigation, &c. ? — Describe 
the character of the Arabs, mode of life, &c. ? 



40 NATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE JEWS. 

THE MOABITES. 

The Moabitcs were the descendants of one of the daughters of Lot. 
(See Genesis.) They possessed themselves of a tract of land near the 
borders of Arabia, or Ccelo-Syria, to which they gave the name of 
Moab. Their religion was a mixture of Judaism and idolatry. It was 
through the plains of Moab that the Israelites were passing when 
Balak ordered Balaam to curse Israel. (B. C. 1451.) 

THE AMMONITES. 

The Ammonites were the descendants of Lot's younger daughter, and 
occupied the county bordering on Moab. They were often engaged in 
war with the Israelites. (B. C. 1095.) We read of Nabash, one of 
their kings in the days of Saul, and of Hannor, the son of Nabash, 
treating contemptuously the ambassador of king David. Though they 
practised the rite of circumcision, their chief deity was Moloch, to 
whom they are said to have sacrificed human victims. As there is 
now no mention of them, they are supposed to have been blended with 
the Arabians. 

THE MIDIANITES. 

The Midianites were the descendants of Midian, one of the sons of 
Abraham, by his second wife Keturah. They inhabited a tract of 
country in Arabia-Petrea, between the Dead Sea and the Arabian Gulf. 
Some addicted themselves to traffic from place to place by caravans ; 
others were shepherds abiding in moveable tents. The religion of the 
Midianites, though at first free from idolatry, became defiled by the 
abominations of the neighbouring nations. They are now no longer 
known as a nation, but doubtless blended with the Arabians. 

THE EDOMITES. 

The Edomiles were the descendants of Esau or Edom; the elder son 
of Isaac and Rebecca, who sold his birthright to his brother Jacob. 
The tract of country which they inhabited was situated between the 
river Jordan and the Mediterranean, known to the heathen writers un- 
der the name of Idumea. They trafficked with the inhabitants of 
Tyre and Sidon, and other parts of the Mediterranean, and by way of 
the Red Sea. Though, like their great progenitors, they adhered to 
circumcision and the worship of one God, yet there were blended with 
them some idolatrous ceremonies. The Edomites and Israelites, though 
the descendants of brothers, Esau and Jacob, were ever at enmity with 
each other. But during the Asmonean dynasty in the second centurv 
B. C, John Hyrcanus compelled them to embrace the Jewish religion, 
and they have since been blended with the conquerors. 

THE AMALEKITES. 

The Amalekites were descended from Amalek, the son of Esau's 

From whom were the Moabites descended? — Who was the chief deity of the 
Ammonites ? — From whom descended, and where their residence ? — VVho was 
the father of the Midianites ? — What was their occupation, and where their resi 
dence? — Who was the progenitor of the Edomites ? — Where did they reside ? — 
With whom did they traffic ? 



THE CANAANITES, THE PHILISTINES. 41 

first-born, Eliphaz, by his concubine Timna. For power and distinc- 
tion they rank among the first of those already noticed. They were a 
warlike people. Both Saul and David warred successfully against 
them. But in the days of Hezekiah the prophecy of Balaam was ful- 
filled — " Amalek was of the first of the nations, but his latter end shall 
be, that he perish for ever." 

THE CANAANITES. 

The Canaanites occupied that portion of land apportioned to the 
twelve tribes of Israel after their wanderings in the wilderness. The 
Canaanites are distinguished in Scripture under the names of Hittites, 
Jebuzites, Amorites, Girgashites, Hivites, Perizites, and Canaanites. 
They appear to have laboured under the curse pronounced against Ham 
and Canaan his son, who probably was a partaker of his father's 
deeds. The religion of the Canaanites during the days of Abraham 
was supposed to be pure, for they acknowledged Melchisedek, a priest 
of the most high God ; but in the days of Moses they had become gross 
idolaters. They were comprehended under a great many states, each 
state under subjection to chiefs or kings. 

During a war of several years the greater part of the Canaanitish 
tribes was subdued ; but they were not wholly extirpated as the 
Lord had commanded, for the Israelites grew weary of the war, and 
this act was subsequently attended with fatal consequences ; the Israel- 
ites being often induced to join in their impious rites and their licen- 
tious idolatry. 

THE PHILISTINES. 

This people was descended, at least in part, from the posterity of 
Mizraim, or originally a colony from Egypt. They took possession of 
the best part of the Land of Promise, a strip of sea coast south of the 
Tyrians. In the days of Abraham they were known for the simplicity 
of their manners and the purity of their religion ; but in the times of 
the Israelites they had imbibed all the vices of idolatrous nations. 
Their chief object of worship was Dagon, a sea god. There was, how- 
ever, a pomp and magnificence in their religious ceremonies, and the 
arts and sciences were in use among them as among the neighbouring 
nations. After waging war with the Israelites, they fell with them 
under the dominion of the Assyrians and the succeeding great mo- 
narchies, and the prophecies of Zephaniah were verified, " Gaza shall 
be forsaken, and Askelon a desolation; they shall drive out Ashdod as 
the noon day, and Ekron shall be rooted up. The word of the Lord is 
against you, O Canaan, the land of the Philistines ; I will even destroy 
thee; there shall be no inhabitant, and the sea coasts shall be dwell- 
ings for shepherds and folds for flocks." 

From which of Esau's sons were the Amalekites descended? — With whom did 
they war? — What portion of land did the Canaanites occupy? — By what namea 
were they distinguished ? — What their religion ? — By whom were they partly 
subdued? — Describe the Philistines, — their place of residence, — their descent 
- their object of worship, — the people with whom they made war, &c. 

4* 



( 44 ) 




ANCIENT HISTORY. 



THE EGYPTIANS. 

(45) 



[ 47 ] 



HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 



CHAPTER 1. 
DESCRIPTION OF EGYPT— ITS ARCHITECTURE. 

Egypt comprehended anciently, within limits of no very great ex- 
tent, a prodigious number of cities, some say 20,000, and an incredible 
number of inhabitants. Ancient Egypt may be divided into three parts : 
— Upper Egypt, or Thebais, the most southern part ; Middle Egypt, or 
Heptanomis, so called from the seven Nomi, or districts it contained ; 
Lower Egypt, which included what the Greeks called Delta, and all 
the country as far as the Red Sea, and along the Mediterranean. 

Thebes, from whence Thebais had its name, might vie with the 
noblest cities in the world. Its hundred gates, celebrated by Homer, 
acquired it the surname of Hecatompylos, to distinguish it from the 
other Thebes in Bceotia. In Thebes (now called Said) have been dis- 
covered temples and palaces which are still almost entire, adorned with 
innumerable columns and statues. 

One palace especially is admired, the remains of which seem to have 
existed to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices. Four walks 
extending farther than the eye can see, and bounded on each side with 
sphinxes, serve as avenues to four porticoes, whose height is amazing 
to behold. A hall which stood in this stately palace was supported by 
one hundred and twenty pillars, six fathoms round, of a proportionable 
height, intermixed with obelisks, which so many ages have not been 
able to demolish. Painting had displayed all her art and magnificence 
in this edifice. The colours themselves, which soonest feel the injuries 
of time, still preserve much of their beauty and lustre. Strabo speaks 
of a famous statue of Memnon, the remains of which he had seen. 

Of Middle Egypt Memphis was the capital. It was situated on the 
west side of the Nile. Grand Cairo, which seems to have succeeded 
Memphis, was built on the other side of that river. The castle of 
Cairo is one of the greatest curiosities in Egypt; and the greatest 
rarity therein is Joseph's well, which has two stories cut out of a rock to 
a prodigious depth. The descent to the reservoir is by a staircase seven 
or eight feet broad, and so gradual as to be scarcely perceptible. The 
water is drawn up by oxen turning a wheel by a rope to which buckets 
are fixed. 

How was Egypt divided? — What its population, &c. ? — Describe its palaces 
edifices, statues, &c. — What curiosity is mentioned near Cairo ? 



48 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

Egypt seemed to place its chief glory in raising monuments for pos- 
terity. The Obelisk is a quadrangular high cone, or pyramid, termi- 
nating in a point; often covered with mystical characters, or hiero- 
glyphics. Every part of Egypt abounded with this kind of obelisks : 
they were for the most part cut in the quarries of Upper Egypt, where 
some are even now to be seen half-finished. The Pyramid is either a 
solid, or a hollow body, having generally a large square base, and ter- 
minating in a point. Three of the pyramids of Egypt, near the city 
of Memphis, more famous than the rest, have been ranked among the 
seven wonders of the world. The largest, like the others, was built 
on a rock having a square base, cut on the outside as so many steps, 
and decreasing gradually to the summit. The stones were of a prodi- 
gious size, thirty feet long, covered with hieroglyphics. A hundred 
thousand men were constantly employed in this work ; and ten years 
were spent in hewing out stones, either in Arabia or Ethiopia, and 
twenty years more in building it. 

These pyramids were tombs, and there is still to be seen in the 
middle of the largest an empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, 
three feet deep, three broad, and a little more than six feet long. Thus 
all this expense, and toil of so many thousand men, ended in procuring 
for a prince a little vault for his remains : which, perhaps, after all, the 
populace would not, on account of his vices, suffer him to occupy. 
Pliny calls these pyramids a foolish and useless ostentation of the 
wealth of the Egyptian kings, — " Re gum pecuniae otiosa ac stulta osten- 
taiio." They differed much from the Romans, who sought to immor- 
talize themselves by works, at once magnificent and of public utility. 

The Labvrinth was still more surprising than the pyramids. It was 
built near the lake Moeris, the same with Arsinoe. It was not so much 
a simple palace as a magnificent pile, composed of twelve palaces, 
regularly disposed, having a communication with each other. Fifteen 
hundred rooms, interspersed with terraces, were ranged round twelve 
halls, and discovered no outlet to the observer. There were the like 
number of buildings under ground, designed for the burying-places of 
the kings, and for keeping the sacred crocodiles, which this nation, so 
wise in some respects, worshipped as gods ! In order to visit the inte- 
rior of this labyrinth, it was necessary to take the same precaution as 
Ariadne made Theseus use in fighting the Minotaur in the labyrinth of 
Crete. 

The Lake Moeris has been deemed the most wonderful of all the 
Egyptian structures. King Moeris, to correct the irregularities of the 
Nile, caused that lake to be dug seven or eight leagues in circumfer- 
ence. This lake has a communication with the Nile, by a great canal, 
four leagues in length and fifty feet in breadth. When the Nile rose too 
high, the sluices were opened to draw off the water ; but when the 
inundation was low, the lake supplied the deficiency. The inundations 
of the Nile are owing to the great rains which fall in Ethiopia, from 
whence the river flows. It begins to flow in Egypt at the summer sol- 

What is said of its obelisks and pyramids? — For what purpose were they 
erected ? — Describe the labyrinth and its use ? — By whom was the lake Moeris 
formed ? 



DESCRIPTION OF EGYPT. 49 

8tice, that is about the end of June, and continues rising till the end of 
September, and then decreases gradually during the months of October 
and November ; after which it returns within its channel. 

The overflowing of the Nile was always attended with an unusual 
joy through all Egypt, as the source of their happiness. The Egyp- 
tians generally sow in October and November as the waters subside, 
and their harvest is in March and April. 

All the remains of Egyptian architecture bear evidence to the great 
wealth and resources of their rulers. Their temples and statues, their 
tombs and sarcophagi, are colossal in size and almost boundless in 
extent. The ruins still existing in Egypt strike every beholder with 
amazement, by their grandeur and extent. No ancient country can 
produce remains of equal magnitude and number. To enable our readers 
to form some conception of the size of their temples, we have inserted, 
at the commencement of this history of Egypt, a picture of the great 
temple at Edfou, on the Nile. To form a tolerable idea of its vastness, 
one must notice the comparatively diminutive proportions of the figures 
in the foreground. 

Lower Egypt in shape resembles a triangle, or the Greek letter A 
Delta. This part is the best cultivated, the most fruitful, and the richest 
in Egypt. Its chief cities (very anciently) were Heliopolis, Heracle- 
opolis, Sais, Tanis, Canopus, Pelusium, &c. ; and in later times, Alex- 
andria, Nicopolis, &c. It was in the country of Tanis that the Israel- 
ites dwelt. 

There was at Sais a temple dedicated to Minerva, supposed to be the 
same as Isis. Heliopolis, or the City of the Sun, w r as so called from 
a magnificent temple dedicated to it. It was in Heliopolis that an ox, 
under the name of Mnevis, was worshipped as a god. Cambyses, king 
of Persia, exercised his sacrilegious rage on this city, burning the 
temples, demolishing the palaces, and destroying the most precious 
monuments of antiquity. 

Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, vied almost in magnifi- 
cence with the ancient cities of Egypt. When the Ptolemies had 
made themselves masters of Egypt, they soon drew all the trade into 
the kingdom, and Alexandria possessed the greatest traffic in the 
world, till a way was discovered to India by the Cape of Good Hope. 
For the convenience of trade, there was built near Alexandria, in the 
isle of Pharos, a tower which bore the same name. At the top of this 
tower was a fire to light such ships as sailed by night near these dan- 
gerous coasts. The famous architect Sostratus built it by order of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. It was reckoned one of the seven wonders of 
the world. In Alexandria the arts and sciences were industriously 
cultivated. In that stately edifice called the Museum, the literati usu- 
ally met, and were maintained at the public expense. The famous li- 
brary, which was augmented considerably by Ptolemy Philadelphus 
and the munificence of kings his successors, at last contained 700,000 
volumes. 

How was the overflowing of the Nile received ? — What temple was dedicated 
to Minerva ? — What is said of Alexandria and the Watch-tower ? 
5 



50 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 



CHAPTER 2. 

LEARNING AND SUPERSTITION OF THE EGYPTIANS — 
MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 

Egypt was considered by the ancients as the most renowned school 
for wisdom and politics, and the source from which most arts and sci- 
ences were derived. Greece was so sensible of this, that its most 
illustrious men, as Homer, Pythagoras and Plato, its legislators, Ly- 
curgus, and Solon and many others, visited Egypt to complete their 
studies. 

Among the peculiar customs of Egypt, there was one by which no 
man was permitted to borrow money without pawning to the creditor 
the body of his father, which every Egyptian embalmed with great 
care, and kept reverentially in his house, whence it might be easily re- 
moved. The Priests in Egypt held the second rank to kings. They 
had great privileges and revenues. The Egyptians pretend to have 
been the first institutors of festivals and processions in honour of the 
gods. Different animals were sacrificed in different countries or dis- 
tricts ; but there was one common and general ceremony in all sacrifi- 
ces, viz. the laying of hands upon the head of the victim, and praying 
the gods to divert to it all the calamities which might threaten Egypt. 

It is to Egypt that Pythagoras owes his favourite doctrine of his 
Metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. Never were any people 
more superstitious than the Egyptians : they had a great number of 
gods to different orders and degrees ; among whom two, Osiris and 
Isis, were generally adored. These were thought to be the son and 
moon ; indeed the worship of these bodies gave rise to idolatry. Be- 
sides these, the Egyptians worshipped numerous other beasts ; as the 
ox, the dog, the wolf, the hawk, the crocodile, the ibis, the cat, &c. 
Of all these, the bull Apis, called Epaphus by the Greeks, was the 
most famous. Magnificent temples were erected to him, extraordinary 
honours were paid to him while he lived, and still greater at his death. 
Egypt then went into a general mourning, and his obsequies were sol- 
emnized with incredible pomp. 

It is evident that the golden calf set up by the Israelites was owing 
to their abode in Egypt, and in imitation of the god Apis. The Egyp- 
tians carried their folly to such an excess as to ascribe a divinity to 
pulse, and roots of the gardens. It is astonishing to see a nation, 
boasting of its superiority in wisdom, thus blindly abandoning itself 
to the most gross and ridiculous superstitions. To read of animals, 
and vile insects honoured with religious worship, placed in temples, 
mantained with great care and at an extravagant expense ; to read that 
f those who murdered them were punished with death ; and that these 
animals were embalmed, and solemnly deposited in tombs, to read that 
even leeks and onions were acknowledged as deities, are excesses, 

By whom was Egypt visited ? — In what veneration were their priests held ? — 
What were their objects of worship ? — What the sacred homage paid them ? 



MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 51 

which we, at this distance, can scarcely believe, and yet they have the 
evidence of all antiquity. 

The reasons given for the worship of these animals are first from 
fabulous history. It is pretended that the gods, in a rebellion made 
against them by men, fled into Egypt, and there concealed themselves 
under the form of different animals ; and that this gave birth to the 
worship afterwards paid to them. The second is taken from the benefit 
these animals procure to mankind ; oxen by their labour, sheep by 
their wool, &c. Philosophers, not satisfied with these reasons, have 
supposed a third, and that it was not offered to the animals themselves, 
but to the gods of whom they are symbols. But could that be called 
a raising of the divine attributes, to direct the worshipper to seek for 
their image in beasts of the most vile and contemptible kinds I But 
these philosophers themselves were not always able to ascend from 
sensible beings to their invisible author — the scripture tells us, that 
" while they professed themselves wise they became fools, for having 
changed the glory of the incorruptible God, into an image, made like 
unto corruptible man, and to birds, fourfooted beasts, and creeping 
things." 

In our mention of the pyramids, we have already observed, with 
what magnificence sepulchres were built in Egypt: for besides their 
being erected as monuments to the memory of the great princes, they 
were considered as the mansions where the body was to remain for a 
long succession of ages. Bodies were embalmed three different ways. 
The most costly were bestowed on persons of distinguished rank. 
Many hands were employed in the ceremony. — After emptying the body 
of the intestines, it was filled with perfumes and odoriferous drugs, 
myrrh, cinnamon, and all sorts of spices. The body was afterwards 
swathed in lawn fillets, glued together with a thin gum, and then crust- 
ed over with the most exquisite perfumes. These embalmed bodies are 
what we call mummies, brought from Egypt, and are to be seen in the 
cabinets of the curious. We find that part of these ceremonies were 
performed in the funeral honours done to Joseph in Egypt. 

The profession of arms was in great repute among the Egyptians. 
Four hundred thousand soldiers, all natives of Egypt, were kept in 
continual pay, and trained up to the exactest discipline. Still they 
were not what is generally termed a warlike people. Egypt loved 
peace, and soldiers were maintained chiefly for security. The Egyp- 
tians extended their reputation more by colonizing than by conquest : 
still Egypt has given birth to illustrious conquerors, which will be duly 
noticed. 

The first libraries were in Egypt, and the titles they bore inspired 
numbers to enter them, and penetrate into their secrets. The Egyptians 
were among the first to observe the course of the planets, and these 
observations led them to regulate the year, by the course of the sun 
into 365 days 6 hours. The overflowing of the Nile led to a know- 
ledge of geometry, for the admeasurement, and adjusting the property 

What were the reasons assigned for such worship? — How were the bodies 
usually embalmed ? — Were the Egyptians a warlike people ? 



52 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

of the lands. What has been observed is sufficient to show the per- 
fection to which architecture, sculpture, painting, &c, had arrived in 
Egypt. Of music they entertained but a mean opinion, considering it 
as a useless and dangerous diversion, not contributing to invigorate the 
oody, while its direct tendency was to enervate the mind. 

There were some plants peculiar to the soil : the Papyrus is a plant 
from the root of which shoot out a great many triangular stalks to the 
height of six or seven cubits. The ancients wrote at first upon palm 
leaves ; next on the inside of the bark of trees ; afterwards upon tables 
covered with wax ; on which the characters were impressed with an 
instrument called Stylus, sharp-pointed at one end to write with, and 
flat at the other to efface, if needful, what had been written. At last 
the use of paper was introduced, and this was made of the bark of Pa- 
pyrus, divided into thin flakes or leaves. 

But the great and matchless wealth of Egypt arose from its corn, of 
which we read so early as the days of Joseph's administration. In 
later ages, it was the resource and the most certain granary of Rome 
and Constantinople. 

CHAPTER 3. 

OF THE KINGS OF EGYPT 

No part of ancient history is more obscure or uncertain than that of 
the first kings of Egypt. This proud nation thought it glorious to lose 
itself in an abyss of infinite ages. According to its own historians, 
first gods, and afterwards demi-gods, or heroes, governed successively 
through a series of many thousand years ; but the absurdity of this 
fabulous claim may be easily discovered. The most effectual way to 
econcile such contradictions, is to suppose, with almost all modern 
writers upon this subject, that the kings of the different dynasties did 
not reign successively, but many of them at the same time, and in diffe- 
rent countries of Egypt. There were four principal dynasties : that of 
Thebes, of Thin, of Memphis, and of Tanis. 

The ancient history of Egypt comprehends 2158 years, and is divi- 
ded into three periods. The first begins with the establishment of the 
Egyptian monarchy, by Menes or Misraim, the son of Cham (or Ham), 
in°the year of the world 1816, and ends with the destruction of the 
monarchy by Cambyses, king of Persia, in the year of the world 3479. 
This first period contains 1663 years. 

The second period is intermixed with the Persian and Grecian history, 
extended to the death of Alexander the Great, which happened in the 
year 3681, and consequently includes 202 years. 

The third period commences with the Ptolemies, and ends with Cle- 
opatra in 3974, and includes a space of 293 years. 

Menes. — Historians are unanimously agreed that Menes was the first 
King of Egypt; and it is supposed, not without foundation, that he is 
the same with Misraim. the son of Ham. Ham was the second son 



What studies were they led to pursue ? — What plants were peculiar to Egypt? 
- Mention the dynasties of Egypt — How is Egypt divided ? — What its periods ! 



THE KINGS OF EGYPT. 53 

of Noah, and after the dispersion from the tower of Babel he returned 
to Africa, and it was doubtless he who was afterwards worshipped as a 
god, under the name of Jupiter Ammon. Ham had four sons, Chus, 
Misraim, Phut, and Canaan. Chus settled in Ethiopia, Misraim in 
Egypt- Phut possessed that part of Africa that lies westward of Egypt ; 
and Canaan of the country which has since borne his name. Menes, 
or Misraim, was the instructor in the worship of the gods, and in the 
ceremonies of the sacrifices. 

Busiris some ages after him built the famous city of Thebes, and 
made it the seat of empire. This prince is not to be confounded with 
Busiris, so infamous for his cruelties. Osymandias, according to Dio- 
dorus, raised many magnificent edifices, one of which was adorned with 
sculptures and paintings of exquisite beauty, representing his expedi- 
tion against the Badrians, a people of Asia, with an immense army. 
Not far from hence was seen a magnificent library, the oldest men- 
tioned in history ; and near it were statues representing all the Egyptiar 
gods. His Mausoleum discovered an uncommon magnificence. It was 
encompassed with a circle of gold, a cubit in breadth, and 365 cubits in 
circumference ; each of which showed the rising and setting of the sun, 
moon, and the rest of the planets. 

Uchoreus, one of the successors of Osymandias, built the city of 
Memphis near the point of the Delta, which the Nile divides into sepa- 
rate branches. This city being so advantageously situated, and strongly 
fortified, became almost the key of the Nile, and commanded the whole 
country. It was afterwards chosen as the usual residence of the Egyp- 
tian kings. It kept possession of that honour till it was rivalled by 
Alexandria. Moeris made the famous lake to which he gave his name. 

Egypt had long been governed by its native princes, when strangers, 
called shepherd kings, from Arabia or Phoenicia, invaded and seized a 
great part of Lower Egypt, A. M. 1920, but Upper Egypt remained un- 
conquered ; and the kingdom of Thebes existed till the reign of Sesos- 
tris. These foreign princes governed about 260 years. Under one of 
those princes, called Pharaoh in Scripture, Abraham arrived there with 
his wife Sarah,* A. M. 2084, who was exposed to great hazard on ac- 
count of her beauty. Thetmosis or Amosis, A. M. 2179, having expelled 
the shepherd kings, reigned in Lower Egypt. Long after his reign 
Joseph was brought a slave into Egypt by some Ishmaelitish mer- 
chants, A. M. 2276, and A. M. 2298 Jacob went with his whole family 
and settled there.f 

* Genesis xii. 10. 20. 

fExod. i. 8. Father Fournemine makes Sesostris, of whom we shall soon speak, the 
Pharaoh who raised the persecution against the Israelites, and who employed only 
foreigners on his Egyptian works ; and, if so, we may place the memorable event of the 
passage over the Red Sea under his son Pheron, and the characteristic impiety ascribed 
to him by Herodotus strengthens the probability. 

Diodorus, speaking of the Red Sea, says a tradition has been transmitted through the 
whole nation, from father to son, for many ages, that once an extraordinary ebb dried 
up the sea so that its bottom was seen ; and that soon after a violent flow brought back 
the waters to their former channel. It is evident that the miraculous passage of Moses 
and the Israelites must be here referred to. 

Who are supposed to be its first kings ? — Describe the Mausoleum of Osyman- 
dias. — Who reigned in the days of Abraham and Joseph ? 

5* 



54 HISTORY OF THE EGYTTIANS. 

Barneses Miamum, according to Archbishop Usher, was the name of 
the king who is called Pharaoh in Scripture. He oppressed the Israel- 
ites in a most grievous manner. This king had two sons, Amenophis 
and Busiris. Amenophis, the eldest, succeeded him A. M. 2494. He 
was the Pharaoh, under whose reign the Israelites departed out of 
Egypt, and who was drowned in his passage through the Red Sea. 

According to Usher, Amenophis left two sons, one called Scsosthis 
or Sesostris, and the other Jirmais. The Greeks call him Belus, and his 
two sons Egyptus and Danaus. Scsostris was not only one of the most 
powerful kings of Egypt, but one of the greatest crmquerors that anti- 
quity boasts of. iElian remarks that Sesostris was taught by Mercury, 
who instructed him in politics and the art of government. This mer- 
cury is he whom the Greeks call Trismegistus, i. e. thrice great. Egypt, 
his native country, owes to him the invention or improvement of almost 
every art. Sesostris fought successfully, first against the Arabians, 
and then against the Libyans, A. M. 2513. He formed no less a design 
than the conquest of the world. But before he left his kingdom, he 
provided for its domestic security. He began his expedition by invading 
Ethiopia, and making it tributary by an annual remittance of ebony, 
ivory, and gold. He next overran Asia, and pierced farther into India 
than Hercules or Bacchus, and, in after times, than Alexander himself 
had ever done, for he subdued the country beyond the Ganges, and ad- 
vanced as far as the ocean. The Scythians, as far as the river Tanais, 
Armenia, and Cappadocia, were conquered. He left a colony in the 
ancient city of Colchis, situated east of the Black sea, where the 
Egyptian customs and manners have been ever since retained. Hero- 
dotus saw in Asia Minor, from one sea to another, monuments of his 
victories. In several countries we read, engraven on pillars, the fol- 
lowing' inscription: " Sesostris, King of Kings, subdued this country 
by the power of his arms." Such pillars were found even in Thrace ; 
and his empire extended from the Ganges to the Danube. But he never 
attempted to preserve his acquisitions ; and after having made wild 
havoc, up and down the world, for nine years, he confined himself 
almost within the limits of Egypt, and a few neighbouring provinces. 

He returned, therefore, laden with the spoils of the vanquished 
nations, dragging after him a numberless multitude of captives, and 
covered with the falsely-acquired glory of invading provinces in a hos- 
tile way, and being the wilful cause of innumerable calamities. His 
officers and soldiers, indeed, he rewarded with a truly royal magnifi- 
cence, in proportion to their rank and merit. With regard to himself, 
he enjoyed his repose in raising works that might contribute more to 
the enriching of Egypt than the immortalizing of his name. An hun- 
dred famous temples, raised as monuments of gratitude to the tutelary 
gods of all the cities, were the first testimonies of his victories. He 
made it his glory to employ only captives on these monuments of his 
conquests. Sesostris might have been considered as one of the most 
illustrious heroes of antiquity, had not the lustre of his actions been 

What is related of Sesostris? — of his power, — rf his conquests, — of his tem- 
ples, — of his cruelties, &c. ? 



EGYPTIAN COLONIES. 55 

tarnished with a fondness of his own grandeur. When he went to the 
temple, or entered his capital, he caused the conquered princes, four 
abreast, to be harnessed to his car. Being grown blind in his old age, 
he despatched himself, after a reign of thirty-three years, and left his 
kingdom immensely rich. 

CHAPTER 4. 

EGYPTIAN COLONIES. 

About the era in question, the Egyptians settled themselves in divers 
parts of the earth. The colony which Cecrops led out of Egypt, built 
twelve cities, or rather towns, of which he composed the kingdom of 
Athens, A. M. 2448. Danaus, the brother of Sesostris, retired to Pe- 
loponnesus, A. M. 2530, and seized upon the kingdom of Argos, which 
had been founded 400 years before, by Inachus. Busiris, A. M. 2533, 
brother of Amenophis, was infamous among the ancients for his cruel- 
ties. About the same time, A. M. 2549, Cadmus brought' from Syria 
or Phoenicia, into Greece, the invention of letters. Only sixteen let- 
ters are ascribed to Cadmus, eight others being added afterwards. 

Pheron, A. M. 2547, succeeded Sesostris in his kingdom — but not 
in his conquests. In A. M. 2G00, succeeded Proteus. He was of 
Memphis, where his temple was still standing in the time of Herodo- 
tus. The temple was dedicated to Venus, the stranger; and it is con- 
jectured that this Venus was Helen : for, in the reign of this monarch, 
Paris, the Trojan, returning home with Helen, whom he had stolen, 
was driven by a storm into the mouth of the Nile, and from thence 
conducted to Proteus at Memphis, who reproached him with his per- 
fidy and guilt. He detained Helen, with all her riches, and ordered 
Paris to quit his kingdom in three days. The king's order was obeyed, 
and Paris pursued his voyage. The ten years' siege of Troy and its 
fall was the consequence. Menelaus, on his return from Troy, called 
at the court of king Proteus, who restored him Helen with all her 
treasures. 

Rhampsinitus is said to have been richer than any of his predeces- 
sors — Cheops and Cepkrenus, brothers, seemed to strive which should 
distinguish himself most by impiety to the gods, and barbarous inhu- 
manity to man. Mycerinus was the son of Cheops, but of a character 
opposite to that of his father. He again opened the temples of the 
gods, restored the sacrifices, and made his subjects enjoy the blessings 
of an equitable administration, so that Egypt resounded with his 
praises. Asychis enacted the law relating to loans, which forbade a 
son to borrow money without giving the dead body of his father, by 
way of security. 

If we suppose the six preceding reigns to have continued 170 years, 
(for the duration of some is not fixed by Herodotus,) there will remain 
an interval of nearly 300 years, to the reign of Sabacus, the Ethiopian. 
In this interval may be placed a few circumstances related in Holy 
Scripture. Pharaoh, (A. M. 2991,) gave his daughter in marriage to 

What settlements and colonies were formed ? — What is said of Pheron and 
Proteus ? — What of Rhampsinitus, Cephrenus, &c. ? 



f)G HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

Solomon, king of Israel. After him reigned Sosach, or Shishak, other 
wise called Sasonchis. It was to him, (A. M. 3026,) that Jeroboam fled, 
to avoid the wrath of Solomon. He abode in Egypt till Solomon's 
death ; and then returning, he put himself at the head of the ten tribes, 
over whom he declared himself king. 

This Sosach, in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, marched 
against Jerusalem and plundered its treasures. Zerah, king of Ethio- 
pia, and doubtless of Egypt also, made war upon Asa, king of Judah, 
(A. M. 3063.) Asa marched against him in full reliance on the God 
whom he served, " Lord," said he, " it is nothing for thee to help, 
whether with many, or with them that have no power. Help us, O 
God, for we rest on thee, and in thy name we go against this multitude," 
&c. The prayer of faith was heard, God struck the Ethiopians with 
terror ; they fled, and "were destroyed before the Lord and before his 
host." (2 Chron. xiv. 9 — 13.) Any sis was blind, and under his reign 
Sabachus, king of Ethiopia, being encouraged by an oracle, entered 
Egypt with a numerous army, and possessed himself of the throne. 
He reigned fifty years with great clemency and justice. Sethon reigned 
fourteen years. He is the same with Sevechus, the son of Sabachon, or 
Saul. 

Till the reign of Sethon, the Egyptian priests computed 341 genera- 
tions of men, which make 11,340 years, allowing three generations to 
100 years. Such was the folly of the Egyptians, to lose themselves 
in a remote antiquity, to which no other people pretended. Thraca, 
(A. M. 3199,) joined Sethon with an Ethiopian army, to relieve Jerusa- 
lem. He succeeded Sethon, and was the last Ethiopian king who 
reigned in Egypt. After his death, the Egyptians, not being able to 
agree about the succession, were two years in a state of anarchy. At 
last, twelve of the principal noblemen, conspiring together, seized the 
kingdom, and divided it into so many parts. 

Psammetichus, (A. M. 3334,) was one of the twelve — and he, by 
the aid of some Grecian soldiers, Carians and Ionians, that had been 
cast upon Egypt by a storm, defeated the eleven kings, and remained 
sole possessor of Egypt. As soon as he was settled on the throne he 
engaged in a war against the king of Assyria, to settle the limits of the 
two empires. Psammetichus died in the 24th year of Josias, king of 
Judah, and was succeeded by his son Nechao, (A. M. 3388.) 

Nechao is often called in Scripture Pharaoh-Necho. He attempted 
to join the Nile to the Red Sea by a canal. They are separated by the 
distance of at least 118 English miles. After 120,000 workmen had 
lost their lives in this attempt, Nechao was obliged to desist. The 
oracle having been consulted, answered that it would open a passage 
to the barbarians to invade Egypt. He was more successful in another 
enterprise. Skilful Phoenician mariners, whom he had taken into his 
service, having sailed out of the Red Sea to discover the coasts of Af- 
rica, went successfully round them ; and the third year after their set- 
ting out, returned to Egypt, through the Straits of Gibraltar. This was 

What reference is made to the Scripture history ? — What was the prayer of Asa, 
king of Judah ? — Did the Egyptians boast of their antiquity? — What is related 
of Psammetichus ? — What adventure is related of Pharaoh Necho ? 



NECHAO, FSAMMIS, APRIL'S. 57 

an extraordinary voyage, in an age when the compass was not known. 
It was made twenty-one centuries before Vasco de Ga?na, a Portuguese 
discovered a way to India by the Cape of Good Hope, in A. D. 1497. 

CHAPTER 5. 
NECHAO, PSAMMTS, APRIES — CONQUEST OF EGYPT. 

The Babylonians and Medes having destroyed Nineveh, and with it 
the empire of the Assyrians, Nechao became alarmed, and advanced to 
the head of the Euphrates, with a powerful force, in order to check 
their progress. Josiah, king of Judah, so famous for his piety, observ- 
ing that he took his route through Judea, resolved to oppose his pas- 
sage, in which he was not only overthrown by him, but received a 
wound, of which he died on his return to Jerusalem. (2 Kings xxiii. 
29, 30. 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 — 25.) Nechao continued his march to- 
wards the Euphrates ; defeated the Babylonians ; took the city of Car- 
chemisk, and returned to Egypt. Being informed in his march home- 
ward that Jehoahaz had caused himself to be proclaimed king of Jeru- 
salem, without first asking his consent, he sent him prisoner to Egypt, 
where he died ; Nechao gave the sceptre to Eliakim, (called by him 
Jehoiakim,) another of Josiah's sons : and imposed an annual tribute 
on the land of an hundred talents of silver, and one talent of gold. 

Nabopolasser, king of Babylon, perceiving his years and infirmities 
increase, associated his son, Nabuchodonosor, or Nebuchadnezzar, 
with him in the empire. This young prince vanquished the army of 
Nechao, near the river Euphrates; and reduced the revolted provinces 
to their allegiance, as Jeremiah had foretold. Nechao dying after a 
reign of sixteen years, left the kingdom to his son Psammis, (A. M. 3404.) 
The reign of Psammis was but six years. He was succeeded by JLprics, 
who, in Scripture, is called Pharaoh Ilophrah, (A. M. 3410,) and reign- 
ed twenty-five years. During the first years of his reign, he was vic- 
torious at Cyprus and at Sidon ; and made himself master of all Phoe- 
nicia and Palestine. Such a rapid success so elated his heart, that he 
boasted it was not in the power of the gods themselves to dethrone him. 
But the true God, offended at such presumption, expressed his mind to 
Ezekiel as follows : — " Son of man, set thy face against Pharaoh, king 
of Egypt, and prophesy. Thus saith the Lord God, behold, I am 
against thee, Pharaoh, the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his 
rivers ; which hath said, ' my river is mine own, and I have made it for 
myself;' but I will put hooks in thy jaws," &c. These and other pre- 
dictions were fully verified in the calamities with which Egypt was 
soon to be overwhelmed. 

The king of Babylon, taking advantage of the intestine divisions, 
which the rebellion of Amasis had occasioned in that kingdom, march- 
ed thither at the head of his army. He subdued Egypt from Migdol 
to Magdol, and made so horrible a devastation wherever he came, that 
the damage could not be repaired in forty years. Nebuchadnezzar 
having loaded his army with spoils, and conquered the whole kingdom, 

How did Necho treat the kings of Judah ? — What prophecy of Ezekiel was ful- 
filled ? — Did Nebuchadnezzar make a conquest of Egypt ' 



58 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 

left Amasis as his viceroy, and returned to Babylon. Apries (Pharaoh 
Hophrah) hired an army to oppose Amasis, but being overcome, he was 
carried to Sais, and strangled in his own palace. 

The prophet had foretold that, during forty years, the Egyptians 
should be visited with great calamities, and then there should be no 
more princes of the land of Egypt. The event was verified; for, at 
the termination of that period, the Persians possessed themselves of 
Egypt, and it was made a province of the Persian empire, and has 
been governed ever since by foreigners. For since the ruin of the Per- 
sian monarchy, it has been snbject successively to the Macedonians, 
the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes ; and lastly, to the Turks, 
who possess it to this day. 

After the death of Apries, Amasis became peaceable possessor of 
Egypt, and reigned forty years over it; he was, according to Plato, a 
native of the city of Sais. He built many magnificent temples. He- 
rodotus admired a chapel at Sais, formed of one single stone, twenty- 
one cubits* in front, fourteen in depth, and eight in length. It had 
been brought from Elephantina, and 2,000 men were employed three 
years in conveying it along the Nile. Amasis had a great esteem for 
the Greeks. He granted them large privileges, and permitted such of 
them as were desirous of settling in Egypt to live in the city of Nau- 
cratis, so famous for its harbour. He is the only king who conquered 
the island of Cyprus, and made it tributary. Under his reign Pytha- 
goras came into Egypt, was initiated into the mysteries of the coun- 
try, and instructed by the priests in whatever was most abstruse and 
important in their religion. It was here he imbibed his doctrine of the 
Metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. 

In the expedition in which Cyrus conquered so great a part of the 
world, Egypt, doubtless, was subdued like the rest of the provinces, 
and Xenophon declares this in the beginning of his Cyropaedia. Pro- 
bably, after the forty years of desolation, which had been prophesied 
by the prophet, were expired, Egypt, beginning gradually to recover 
itself, shook off the yoke, and recovered its liberty. Accordingly, we 
find that Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, on his ascending the throne, car- 
ried his arms into Egypt. On his arrival there, Amasis was just dead, 
and was succeeded by his sOn, Psammcnitus. (A. M. 3479.) Camby- 
ses, having gained a battle, pursued the enemy to Memphis, besieged 
and took the city. However, he treated the king with clemency, and 
assigned him an honourable pension ; but being informed that he was 
secretly concerting measures to reascend the throne, he put him to 
death. Psammenitus reigned but six months, and all Egypt submitted 
to the victor. 

From this era the history of this nation will be blended with that of 
the Persians and Greeks, till the death of Alexander. At that period a 
new monarchy arose in Egypt, founded by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, 
which continued till Cleopatra, or about three hundred years. 
* The cubit is nearly twenty-two inches. 

To whom were the Egyptians successively subject ? — What temple was built by 
Amasis? — What resulted from the expedition of Cyrus ? — With what histories 
will that of Egypt be henceforward blended ? 



( 60 ) 




ANCIENT HISTORY. 



THE CARTHAGINIANS. 

(61) 



63 ] 



HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 



CHAPTER 1. 

ORIGIN OF THE CARTHAGINIANS — THEIR RELIGION, GOVERN- 
MENT AND COMMERCE. 

The Carthaginians were indebted to the Tyrians, not only for their 
origin, but also for their manners, language, customs, laws, religion, 
and application to commerce. They spoke the same language as the 
Tyrians, and these the same as the Canaanites. If it were not the 
Hebrew, it was at least a language entirely derived from it, for many 
of the characters were Hebrew. The word Pceni, from which Punic 
is derived, is the same with Phosni, or Phoenicians, because they came 
originally from Phoenicia. This accounts for the strict union which 
always subsisted between the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians. 

When Cambyses had resolved to make war upon the latter, the Phoe- 
nicians, who formed the chief strength of his fleet, told him plainly, that 
they could not serve him against their countrymen ; and this declaration 
obliged that prince to lay aside his design. The Carthaginians were 
never forgetful of the country from whence they came, and to which 
they owed their origin. .They sent regularly every year to Tyre a ship 
freighted with presents, as a quit-rent paid to their ancient country : 
and its tutelary gods had an annual sacrifice offered o them by the 
Carthaginians, who considered them as their protectors. They sent 
thither the first fruits of their revenues, and a tithe of the spoils taken 
from their enemies, as offerings for Hercules, one of the principal gods 
of Tyre and Carthage ; and when Alexander was besieging Tyre, the 
Tyrians sent away their wives and children to Carthage, where they 
were received and entertained with kindness and generosity. 

It appears, from several passages in the history of Carthage, that its 
generals began and ended all their enterprises with the worship of the 
gods. Hamilcar, father of the great Hannibal, before he entered Spain, 
offered up a sacrifice to the gods ; and his son, treading in his steps, 
before he left Spain and marched against Rome, went to Cadery, to 
pay the vows he had made to Hercules. This religious homage was 
not the ambition of particular persons only, but of the whole nation. 
Polybius has transmitted to us a treaty of peace concluded by Philip, 

From whom were the Carthaginians derived, and what their language, man 
ners, customs, &c. ? — What their attachment to the mother country ? 



04 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 

son of Demetrius, king of Macedon, and the Carthaginians, in which 
the respect and veneration of the latter for the deity, and their persua- 
sion that the gods preside over human affairs, are strongly displayed. 

The Carthaginians had two deities to whom they paid particular 
worship. The first was the goddess Caslestis, called also Urania, or the 
moon, who was invoked in great calamities. This has been supposed 
to be the same deity whom Jeremiah (Jer. vii. 18, and xliv. 17 — 25) 
calls the queen of heaven, and who was held in so much reverence by 
the Jewish women, that they addressed their vows to her, burnt in- 
cense, poured out drink-offerings, and made cakes for her with their 
own hands. 

The second deity adored by the Carthaginians, and in whose honour 
human sacrifices were offered, was Saturn, known in Scripture by the 
name of Moloch. This worship passed from Tyre to Carthage. Philo 
quotes a passage from Sanchoniathon which shows that the kings of 
Tyre, in great danger, used to sacrifice their sons, to appease the anger 
of the gods ; and that one of them, by this action, procured himself 
divers honours, and was worshipped as a god, under the name of the 
planet Saturn. To this, doubtless, was owing the fable of Saturn's 
devouring his own children. This custom prevailed long among the 
Phoenicians and Canaanites, from whom the Israelites borrowed it, 
though forbidden expressly by heaven. At first, children were inhu- 
manly burned, either in a fiery furnace, like those in the valley of Hin- 
nom, so often mentioned in Scripture, or in a flaming statue of Saturn. 
Mothers made it a part of their religion to view the spectacle with dry 
eyes, fearing lest the victims being offered with an unbecoming grace, 
should anger the gods. 

The Carthaginians retained the barbarous custom of offering human 
sacrifices to their gods till the ruin of the city ; for some time after- 
wards it was suspended from fear of their drawing upon themselves 
the indignation and arms of Darius. It appears from Tertullian's 
Apology, that the custom prevailed to the consulship of Tiberius, who 
hanged the sacrificing priests themselves on the trees which shaded the 
temple. 

" Religion," says Plutarch, " is placed between two rocks, equally 
dangerous to man, and injurious to the Deity — namely, impiety and 
superstition. The one, from an affectation of freethinking, believes 
nothing; the other, from a blind weakness, believes all things. Im- 
piety, to rid itself of a terror which galls it, denies the very existence 
of Deity, while superstition, to lull its fears, forges false gods." 

The government of Carthage was founded upon principles of con- 
summate wisdom. Aristotle ranks this republic among those held in 
the greatest esteem by the ancients. He remarks, that from its foun- 
dation to his time, (upwards of 500 years,) no considerable sedition 
had disturbed the peace, nor any tyrant oppressed the liberty of Car- 
thage. The government united three different authorities ; these authori- 

Mention what was their strong religious impression. — From whence originated 
the fable of Saturn destroying his own offspring ? — Did the Carthaginians offer 
human sacrifices ? — What judicious remark does Plutarch make ? 



RESOURCES, EXTENT, ETC. OF CARTHAGE. 65 

ties were that of the two supreme magistrates, called Suffetes* — that 
of the senate, — and that of the people. Then, afterwards, the tribunal 
of One hundred, which had great influence on the republic. The 
power of the Suffetes was only annual, and their authority in Carthage 
answered to that of consuls at Rome. The senate was composed of 
persons venerable for age, experience, birth, riches, or merit. When 
the votes were unanimous, the senate decided supremely, and there lay 
no appeal from it ; but when there was a division, the power of deciding 
devolved on the people. 

The Trade of Carthage was its predominant characteristic. The 
power, the conquests, the credit and glory of the Carthaginians, all 
flowed from their trade. Situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 
and stretching their arms both eastward and westward, the extent of 
their commerce embraced the known world. From Egypt they brought 
fine flax, paper, corn, and sails and cables for ships ; from the coasts 
of the Red Sea, spices, frankincense, perfumes, gold, pearls, and pre- 
cious stones. From Tyre and Phoenicia, purple and scarlet, rich stuffs, 
costly furniture, and divers curious and artificial works. From the 
western world, for the commodities carried thither, they brought iron, 
tin, lead, and copper. They thus enriched themselves at the expense 
of all nations, and became for a time lords of the sea. The most con- 
siderable personages of the city were not ashamed to trade. They 
made settlements on the coast of Spain, and, some time after, New 
Carthage gave the Carthaginians an empire in that country almost equal 
to that which they enjoyed in Africa. 

CHAPTER 2. 

RESOURCES, EXTENT, AND EARLY HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 

The gold and silver mines found in Spain were to the Carthaginians 
an inexhaustible source of wealth, that enabled them to sustain such 
long wars against the Romans. Polybius, as quoted by Strabo, says, 
" that in his time, upwards of 40,000 men were employed in the mines 
near Nova Carthago, and furnished the Romans every day with 25,000 
drachms, or 859/. 7s. Gd. Carthage must be considered not only as a 
commercial but also as a warlike republic. Its genius and the nature 
of its government led it to traffic, and the necessity for defending their 
colonies, and the desire of extending the empire of commerce, led them 
to war. Their military power consisted in their alliances with kings, 
with tributary nations, and in mercenary soldiers purchased of neigh- 
bouring states. From Numidia they drew a nimble, bold, impetuous, 
and indefatigable cavalry ; from the Balearic Isles, the most expert 
slingers in the world ; from Spain, an invincible infantry ; and from 
Greece itself, soldiers fit for all the various operations of war. 

* This word is derived from Sophetim, which, with the Hebrews and Phoenicians, 
signifies judges. 



What was the mode of government in Carthage ? — Mention the extent and va- 
riety of the trade of Carthage. — From what gold mines were they enriched, and 
from whence did they recruit their armies ? 



66 H1S10RY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 

In this manner the Carthaginians at once sent powerful forces, com- 
posed of soldiers which were the flower of all the armies in the uni- 
verse, without depopulating either their fields or cities by new levies — 
without suspending their manufactories — without interrupting their 
commerce, or weakening their navy. They possessed themselves, by 
venal blood, of provinces and kingdoms, and made other nations the 
instruments of their grandeur and glory. But as these forces were for- 
tuitously brought together, they did not adhere by any natural, intimate, 
or necessary tie. Thus the grandeur of the Carthaginians being sus- 
tained only by foreign supports, was shaken to the foundation when 
they were once taken away ; and the rebellions which harassed Carthage 
in its later years, ought to have taught the citizens, that no mise- 
ries are comparable to those of a government which is supported by 
foreigners ; since neither zeal, security, nor obedience can be expected 
from them. This was not the case with the republic of Rome. As the 
Romans had neither trade nor money, they were not able to hire forces ; 
but, then, as their resources were within themselves, they had a surer 
dependence in extreme emergencies than the Carthaginians. 

With respect to the glory which results from study and knowledge, 
Carthage was not entirely deficient. The sending Massinissa, son of 
a powerful king, thither for education, gives us room to believe that the 
state was provided with an excellent school. The great Hannibal was 
not unacquainted with polite literature. Mago, another celebrated gene- 
ral, did as much honour to Carthage by his pen as by his victories. 
He wrote twenty-eight volumes upon husbandry, which the Roman 
Senate held in such esteem, that, after the taking of Carthage, they 
gave orders to have these books translated into Latin ; and there is still 
extant a Greek version of a treatise, drawn up by Hanno, in the Punic 
tongue, relating to the voyage he made with a considerable fleet round 
Africa. 

Among the writers who have adorned Africa, the celebrated Terence 
may be placed at their head. But though Carthage was the place of 
his birth, he received his education in Rome, where he acquired that 
purity of style, that delicacy and elegance, which have gained him the 
admiration of all succeeding ages. During the Punic wars he was sold 
a slave to Terentius Lucanus, a Roman Senator, who, after giving him 
an excellent education, granted him his liberty, and called him, as was 
then the custom, by his own name. Notwithstanding what has been 
said of the learned men of Carthage, there has been a great scarcity 
of them — barely furnishing three or four writers in upwards of 700 
years. Eloquence, Poetry, and History, seem to have been little known 
among them. 

In Carthage, the study and knowledge of youth were, for the most 
part, confined to writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, and what related to 
traffic. Accordingly, there was seldom seen among them that elegance 
of behaviour, and those sentiments of honour, which are generally the 

Wherein did their forces differ from those of Rome? — What attention did they 
pay to learning ? — Mention one of the few great men that flourished. To wha 
was children's knowledge chiefly confined ? 



HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 67 

fruits of a liberal education in all civilized nations. Hence it was, tnat 
the merit of the greatest men in Carthage was sullied by great failings, 
low vices, and cruel passions. Cicero says, " the qualities of the Car- 
thaginians are craft, skill, industry, and cunning (calliditas)." Craft 
and cunning lead naturally to lying, hypocrisy, and breach of faith, and 
this was so notorious, that to signify any remarkable dishonesty, it was 
usual to call it Punic honour ,• and a knavish, deceitful mind, was em- 
phatically called Punicum ingeirium, a Carthaginian mind. 

The history of the Carthaginians, from the foundation of Carthage to 
its ruin, included about 700 years, and may be divided into two parts — 
the first extends to the Punic war — the second, to the destruction of the 
state. Carthage in Africa, was a colony from Tyre, the most renowned 
city for commerce in the world. Tyre had long before transplanted 
another colony into that cotfntry, which built Utica, made famous by 
the death of the second Cato, who for this reason is generally called 
Cato Uticensis. The foundation of Carthage may be fixed about the year 
of the world 3158, when Joash was king of Judah ; 79 years before the 
building of Rome, and 846 before the birth of Christ. 

It is ascribed to Elisa, a Tyrian princess, better known by the name 
of Dido. Ithobal, or Ethbaal, king of Tyre, and father of the noted 
Jezebel, was her great-grandfather. She married her near relation, 
Acerbas, called also Sicharbas and Sichaeus, an extremely rich prince, 
and Pygmalion, king of Tyre, was her brother. This prince having 
put Sichaeus to death, that he might possess his immense treasures, 
Dido eluded the cruel avarice of her brother by withdrawing secretly, 
with all her dead husband's possessions. She landed on the coast of 
Africa, on the gulf where Utica stood,* and there settled with her fol- 
lowers, after having purchased some lands from the inhabitants of the 
country. Dido, welcomed by the natives of the country, was induced 
to build her city, which she named Carthada,f a name that, in the Phoe- 
nician or Hebrew tongue, signifies " new city.":j: It is said that while 
the foundations were digging, a horse's head was found, which was 
thought to be a good omen ; and a presage of the future warlike genius 
of the people. 

The dominions of Carthage were not long confined to Africa. The 
inhabitants extended their conquests into Europe, by invading Sardinia, 
seizing a great part of Sicily, reducing almost all Spain, and having 
sent powerful colonies everywhere, they enjoyed the empire of the seas 
for more than six hundred years ; and formed a state which was able 
to dispute pre-eminence with the greatest empires of the world, by their 
wealth, their commerce, their numerous armies, their formidable fleets, 
and above all, by the courage and abilities of their captains. The first 

* Distant about fifteen miles from where Tunis now stands. 

t Kartha Hadath. 

X There is a tale, though generally exploded by the learned, that Dido put a trick 
upon the natives, by the purchase of so much land as an ox's hide would encompass. 
She then cut the hide into the smallest thongs, and with them encompassed a large 
tract of ground, on which she built a citadel called Byrsa, from the hide. 

What were the usual qualities of the Carthaginians ? — How do you divide the 
Carthaginian history ? — What is related of Dido, the Tyrian princess ? 



68 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 

wars of the Carthaginians were an ineffectual attempt to free them- 
selves from the annual tribute which they engaged to pay the Africans 
for the land. They next carried their arms against the Moors and Nu- 
midians, and won conquests from both, — this enabled them to shake off 
the tribute, and also to possess themselves of a considerable part of 
Africa. About this time there arose a dispute between Carthage and 
Cyrene, on account of their respective limits. Cyrene was a powerful 
city, situated on the Mediterranean, towards the greater Syrtis, and had 
been built by Battus, the Lacedaemonian. 

It was agreed on each side that two young men should set out at the 
same time from each city ; and that the place of their meeting should 
be the common boundary of both states. The two Carthaginians (who 
were brothers, named Philaeni) made the most haste, and their antago- 
nists, pretending that foul play had been used, and that these brothers 
had set out before the time appointed, refused to abide by the appoint- 
ment, unless the two brothers, to remove all suspicion of unfair dealing, 
would consent to be buried alive in the place where they had met. 
They acquiesced with the proposal ; and the Carthaginians erected on 
that spot two altars to their memory, and paid them divine honours in 
their city ; and from that time the place was called " Arae Philsenorum," 
"The altars of the Philaeni," and served as the boundary of the Car- 
thaginian empire. 

CHAPTER 3. 

COLONIES OF CARTHAGE — FOREIGN WARS — HAMILCAR — 
HANNIBAL. 

The island of Sardinia, during their wars, supplied the Carthagini- 
ans with abundance of provisions. The chief town of the southern 
and most fertile part was Caralis, (or Calaris) now Cagliari. On the 
arrival of the Carthaginians, the natives withdrew to their almost inac- 
cessible mountains, from whence the enemy could not dislodge them. 
The people of the Baleares, now called Majorca and Minorca, were 
accustomed from their infancy to handle the sling, and they furnished 
the Carthaginians with the most expert slingers in the world, and were 
of great service to them in their battles and sieges. They flung large 
stones above a pound weight; and it is said that they could throw lead- 
en bullets with so much violence, that they would pierce even the 
strongest helmets, shields, and cuirasses ; and were so dexterous that 
they scarcely ever missed their aim. From this practice these islands 
were called Baleares, and Gymnasiae by the Greeks.* 

The occasion of the Carthaginians first landing in Spain was to assist 
the inhabitants of Cadiz, who were an ancient colony of Tyre, and who 
were invaded by the native Spaniards. These Tyrians established 

* Bochart derives the name of these islands from two Phoenician words. Baal-jare, or 
master of the art of slinging 

What the extent of the Carthage dominions ? — How were the boundaries of 
their country determined ? — What is said of the Balearic Isles ? 



HANNIBAL. 09 

there the worship of Hercules, and erected to his honour a magnificent 
temple, which became famous in after ages. At the time that Hanni- 
bal set out for Italy, the coast of Spain, which lies on the Mediterra- 
nean, had been almost wholly subdued by them, and there they built 
Carthagena, and they were masters of the country as far as the river 
Iberus, which bounded their dominions. 

The wars which the Carthaginians carried on in Sicily are better au- 
thenticated. From the triangular form of Sicily, it received the name 
of Trinacria, or Triquetra. When the Carthaginians first carried their 
arms into Sicily is not known, but they had already possessed some 
part of it when they entered into a treaty with the Romans, namely, the 
same year that the kings were expelled, and consuls appointed, twenty- 
eight years before Xerxes invaded Greece. Some time after the con- 
clusion of this treaty, (A. M. 3520,) the Carthaginians made an alliance 
with Xerxes, king of Persia, by which the former were to invade, with 
all their forces, those Greeks who were settled in Sicily and Italy, 
during which Xerxes would march in person against Greece itself. 

The preparations for this war lasted three years; and Hamilcar, the 
most experienced captain of the age, sailed from Carthage with his for- 
midable army, landed at Palermo, and marched against Himera. Ge- 
lon, an able warrior, made a very vigorous defence ; Hamilcar was 
killed, and his ships were fired ; a dreadful slaughter ensued, and the 
Carthaginians were compelled to surrender at discretion. This battle 
was fought the very day of the famous action of Thermopylae, in which 
three hundred Spartans, with the sacrifice of their lives, disputed 
Xerxes' entrance into Greece. When the news of this disaster was 
brought to Carthage, consternation, grief, and despair, threw the whole 
city into confusion. 

The conduct of a second war was committed to Hannibal, who had 
been invested with the highest dignities of the state — being one of the 
Suffetes. He was grandson to Hamilcar, who had been defeated by 
Gelon, and killed before Himera. In his boyhood his father had m?de 
him repair to the temple of Jupiter and swear eternal enmity to the Ro- 
mans. (See engraving at the commencement of the History of the 
Carthaginians.) In this expedition he was successful, and the victor 
exercised the most horrid cruelties without showing regard either to 
age or sex. When Hannibal returned to Carthage, the whole city came 
out to meet him with the most joyful acclamations. 

Three years after, they appointed Hannibal their general, a second 
time ; and on his pleading his great age, and refusing the command of 
the war, they gave him for lieutenant, Imilcon, son of Hanno, if the 
same family. The number of their forces, according to Timaeus, 
amounted to above 120,000 men. Agrigentum, a prodigiously rich 
city, first felt the fury of the enemy. It was situated on the coast that 
faces Africa. Hannibal opened the campaign with the siege of this 
city. The besieged, who at first had gained several advantages, were 

How came the Carthaginians to land in Spain ? — Why was Sicily called Trina- 
cria ? — What event threw Carthage in confusion ? — Was Hannibal successful ? — 
How was he received on his return ? — What was his success at Agrigentum ? 



70 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 

at last so pressed by famine, that they were compelled to abandon the 
city ; and never was a more melancholy spectacle seen. The unhappy 
exiles arrived at Gela, the nearest city, and there received all the com- 
forts they could expect in their deplorable condition. In the mean time 
Imilcon entered the city. The plunder was immensely rich. A num- 
berless multitude of pictures, vases, and statues of all kinds, were found 
here ; the citizens having an exquisite taste for the polite arts. 

He afterwards besieged Gela, and took it, notwithstanding the suc- 
cours which were brought by Dionysius the tyrant, who had seized 
upon the government of Syracuse. Imilcon ended the war by a treaty 
with Dionysius, which secured to the Carthaginians the conquests they 
had gained, and left the Syracusans still subject to Dionysius, who 
concluded this peace to establish his new authority, and to enable him 
to gain resources for carrying on the war successfully. 

Dionysius opened the campaign with the siege of Motya, which was 
the magazine of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and which, after a vigor- 
ous defence, was taken by storm; but it was retaken by Imilcon the 
following year. His army, however, was so greatly reduced by the 
plague, that he sent to Dionysius, during a suspension of hostilities, 
for leave to carry back with him the remains of his shattered army. 
Being arrived in Carthage, which he found overwhelmed with grief and 
despair, he entered his house, shut his door against the citizens, and 
then gave himself the fatal stroke, to which the heathen falsely gave 
the name of courage, though, in reality, it is no other than a cowardly 
despair. 

But the calamities of this unhappy state did not stop here ; for the 
Africans rose, and, after seizing upon Tunis, marched directly to Car- 
thage, to the number of more than 200,000 men. Happily for the Car- 
thaginians, this numerous army had no leader, no provisions or military 
engines, no discipline or subordination. Divisions, therefore, arising 
in this rabble of an army, and the famine increasing daily, the indivi- 
duals withdrew to their respective homes, and delivered Carthage from 
a dreadful storm. Notwithstanding their late disasters, the Carthagi- 
nians continued their enterprises on Sicily. Mago, their general, and 
one of the SufFetes, lost a great battle and his life. After an interval 
of peace, Mago, the son of him who had been lately killed, gave battle 
to Dionysius, and obtained a victory, which put them in possession of 
their former dominions in Sicily, besides 1,000 talents for defraying the 
expenses of the war. Dionysius died some time after, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son of the same name. 

CHAPTER 4. 

IIANNO, AGATHOCLES — WAR WITH ROME. 

A second treaty was concluded with the Romans, not differing mate- 
rially from the first, about the 402d year of the foundation of Rome. 

Did not Imilcon besiege and take Gela? — What was the fate of Imilcon the 
Carthag.nian ? — To what perils were the Carthaginians exposed ? — What deli- 
vered them from the dreadful storm ? 



HANNO, AGATHOCLES. 71 

(A. M. 3G56.) After the death of the elder Dionysius, Syracuse was 
involved in great troubles. The son, who had been expelled, restored 
himself by force, and exercised great cruelties there. The Syracusans 
had recourse to the Corinthians for assistance, who sent over Timoleon, 
a man of great merit, with ten ships and about a thousand soldiers. In 
his march to Syracuse his army continued to increase. Dionysius, 
having no refuge left, put the citadel into his hands, and escaped by his 
assistance, to Corinth, where he turned schoolmaster. Mago, being 
apprehensive of the disaffection of his forces, withdrew from the scene 
and arrived at Carthage. On his arrival he was impeached, but he 
prevented the execution of the sentence passed on him by a voluntary 
death. 

About this time in all probability, there happened at Carthage a 
memorable incident, related by Justin. Hanno, one of the most power- 
ful citizens, formed a design of seizing on the republic, by destroying 
the whole senate, which deed was to have been committed when they 
all had assembled to celebrate his daughter's marriage. But the con- 
spiracy was discovered, and Hanno, after further efforts to accomplish 
his diabolical design, was taken prisoner ; after having been whipped, 
his eyes were put out, and he was put to death under the most cruel 
tortures. The Carthaginians, ever severe in their punishments, ex- 
tended them even to the innocent. His children and all his relations, 
though they had not joined in his guilt, shared in his punishment. 
Not a single person of his family was left, either to imitate his crime 
or to revenge his death. 

Brief notice must now be taken of the war which Agathocles carried 
on, not only in Sicily but in Africa. (A. M. 3694. B. C. 313.) Aga- 
thocles was a Sicilian of obscure birth and low fortune. Supported at 
first by the power of the Carthaginians, he invaded the sovereignty of 
Syracuse, and made himself tyrant over it. His next design was to 
make Africa itself the seat of war, and to besiege Carthage. On his 
landing, the Carthaginians were in prodigious alarm ; they had no 
arms in sufficient readiness to oppose the enemy. An engagement soon 
took place ; Agathocles obtained a victory, taking a number of strong 
holds ; and many Africans joined the victor. 

This descent of Agathocles into Africa doubtless suggested to Scipio 
the design of making the like attempt upon that republic. While the 
Carthaginians wer^ thus warmly attacked by their enemies, ambassa- 
dors came to them from Tyre, imploring their succour against Alexan- 
der the Great, who was upon the point of taking their city, which he 
had long besieged. Though the Carthaginians could not relieve them 
by troops, they sent thirty deputies of their principal citizens. The 
Tyrians committed their wives, children, and old men to the care of 
these deputies, and Carthage received them with all possible marks of 
amity. 

The present unhappy state of the republic was considered by this 

What befel the younger Dionysius? — What did Hanno attempt? — and what 
befel him ? — What success had" Agathocles in Africa ? — How came the Tyrians 
to take refuge in Carthage ? 



72 nisTORY or the Carthaginians. 

superstitious people as the effect of the wrath of the gods, with regard 
to two deities, to whom the Carthaginians had been wanting in the duties 
prescribed by their religion. The one was their neglect to send annually 
to Tyre, the mother country, the tenth of all the revenues of the re- 
public, as an offering to Hercules ; the other, an inhuman superstition, 
was their neglect to sacrifice to Saturn, children of the best families in 
Carthage. To expiate their supposed guilt and horrid impiety, they 
sent to Tyre great presents, and gold shrines of their deities ; and at 
home two hundred children of the first rank, and upwards of three hun- 
dred persons offered themselves voluntarily as victims to pacify the 
wrath of the gods. 

After these expiations, they sent off to Hamilcar in Sicily, who was 
storming Syracuse, to request immediate succours. Hamilcar, after 
making a last, but ineffectual effort to storm the city, sent 5,000 men to 
the relief of his distressed country. Some time after, Hamilcar, being 
returned to the siege, fell into the enemies' hands, who put him to death, 
and sent his head to Agathocles, in Africa, to be exhibited to the Car- 
thaginians. To these foreign enemies was joined a domestic one. Bo- 
milcar, the Carthaginian general, attempted to obtain the sovereignty 
of Carthage. He, therefore, entered the city with ambitious views, 
seconded by many of the citizens, who were the accomplices of his re- 
bellion ; but, after an ineffectual struggle, they surrendered, in conse- 
quence of the offer of a general pardon. Bomilcar was excepted, who 
was put to death with the most exquisite torments. 

Agathocles, who, for some time, had been so successful in Africa, 
experienced a reverse — the Africans deserted him, and his own troops 
were unable to make head against the Carthaginians. In this extremity 
he thought only of providing for his own safety ; and this base deserter 
of his army stole away, and arrived at Syracuse with only a few at- 
tendants. He died miserably soon after, and ended, by a cruel death, 
a life that had been polluted by the blackest crimes. 

We now approach the times of Pyrrhus, (A. M. 3727. B. C. 277,) 
king of Epirus, whose ambitious views excited the apprehension of 
both the Romans and the Carthaginians. To strengthen themselves 
against his attempts, they renewed their treaties of mutual assistance 
with each other. When Pyrrhus turned his arms against Italy, and 
gained many victories, the Carthaginians sent the Romans a fleet 
of six-score sail, under the command of Mago. The senate returned 
thanks for the obliging offer, but declined accepting it. For the secu- 
rity of Sicily, the Carthaginians transported additional forces thither, 
and the Syracusans, to oppose them, sent pressingly to Pyrrhus foi 
succours. 

This prince had a particular reason to espouse their interests, having 
married Danassa, daughter of Agathocles. Pyrrhus arrived in Sicily, 
and his conquests were so rapid that he left the Carthaginians, in the 

What befel Hamilcar while besieging Syracuse ? — What did Bomilcar attempt, 
and what was his fate? — To what did the superstitious ascribe their calamities? 
— What ill fate awaited Agathocles ? — In the times of Pyrrhus, what succours 
did the Carthaginians offer the Romans ? 



WAR WITH ROME. 73 

whole island, only the single town of Lilybaeum. But the urgent ne- 
cessity of liis affairs called him back to Italy, and the Sicilians re- 
turned to the obedience of their former masters. Thus he lost the 
island with the same rapidity that he had won it. As he was embark- 
ing, turning his eyes back to Sicily, — " What a fine field of battle," 
said he, " do we leave to the Carthaginians and Romans !" His pre- 
diction was soon verified. 

After his departure, the chief public employment of Syracuse was 
conferred on Hiero, who afterwards obtained the name and dignity 
of king, by the united suffrages of the citizens, so greatly had his 
government pleased. He was appointed to carry on the war against 
the Carthaginians, and obtained several advantages over them. But 
now a common interest united them against a new enemy, who 
began to appear in Sicily, and justly alarmed both. These were 
the Romans, who, having crushed all the enemies of Italy, were 
now powerful enough to carry their arms out of it. Sicily lay com- 
modious for them, and they crossed the strait. This caused a rupture 
between them and the Carthaginians, and gave rise to the first Punic 
war. The account of this, and the third Punic war, and the fall of 
Carthage, comprising the remaining portion of the history of this em- 
pire, will be found under their respective heads in the " History of 
Rome." 

What conquests did Pyrrhus gain in Sicily ? — To what dignity did Hiero arrive 
— What new enemy appeared and gave rise to the first Punic war ? 



{ 76 ) 




ANCIENT HISTORY 



GREECE. 

(77) 



[ 79 ] 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 



CHAPTER 1. 
EARLY HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 

The history of ancient Greece is not so much the history of any par- 
ticular kingdom, as of a number of petty independent states, sometimes 
at war, and sometimes in alliance with one another. Passing over the 
fabulous times of the Grecian republics, we shall begin our account of 
those different states at that period where real and authentic history 
commences. 

Sicyon is said to have been the first kingdom that was established 
in Greece. The beginning of it is placed by historians in the year of 
the world, one thousand nine hundred and fifteen; before Christ, two 
thousand and eighty-nine; and before the first Olympiad, one thousand 
three hundred and thirteen. Its first king was iEgialeus ; and it lasted 
a thousand years. 

(A. M. 2148.) The kingdom of Argos, in Peloponnesus, began a 
thousand and eighty years before the first Olympiad, in the time of 
Abraham. The first king was Inachus. This was succeeded by the 
kingdom of Mycenae, to which place the seat of government was trans- 
ferred from Argos, by Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, king of Argos. 
Eurystheus, the third in succession from him, was expelled by the 
Heraclidae, or descendants of Hercules, who made themselves masters 
of Peloponnesus. 

(A. M. 2448.) The kingdom of Athens was first formed into a regu- 
lar government by Cecrops, an Egyptian, who, having married the 
daughter of Actseus, the king of Attica, at his death succeeded to the 
throne. He taught the people, who had hitherto led a wandering life, 
the use of fixed habitations; and he instituted the celebrated court of 
Areopagus. Amphictyon, the third king of Athens, established the 
famous Amphictyonic council. And Codrus, the last prince of this 
line, in a war between the Athenians and the Heraclidae, devoted him- 
self for the good of his country. After the death of Codrus, the title 
of king was abolished at Athens, and that of Archon, or chief-governor, 
substituted in its stead. The duration of this last office was at first 

When was the kingdom of Sicyon said to be founded ? — Who was its first king? 
— Who was the first king of Argos ? — How long before the time of Abraham, and 
who were the Heraclidce? — By whom was Athens formed into a regular govern- 
ment? — Who is said to have established the court of Areopagus ? — And who 
the Amphictyonic council? 



60 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

for the possessor's life ; it was afterwards limited to ten years, and 
finally to one. 

(A. M. 2549.) Cadmus was the founder of the kingdom of Thebes; 
and to him are attributed sixteen letters of the Greek alphabet ; though 
it is probable he borrowed them from the Phoenician characters, rather 
than invented them. The kingdom of Sparta, or Lacedsemon, is sup- 
posed to have been first instituted by Lelexa. Helena, the tenth in 
succession from this monarch, is equally famous for her beauty, and for 
her infidelity to the marriage-bed. She had not lived above three years 
with her husband, Menelaus, when she was carried off by Paris, the 
son of Priam, king of Troy. In revenge the Greeks invested that 
city, and took it after a siege of ten years ; about the time that Jephtha 
was judge in Israel. 

(A. M. 2820.) The first sovereign of Corinth was Sisyphus, the son 
of JEolus, and, upon the expulsion of his descendants, Bacchis assumed 
the reins of power. After this, the government became aristocratical ; 
a chief magistrate being annually chosen by the name of Prytanis. At 
last Cypselus usurped the supreme authority, which he transmitted to 
his son Periander, who was reckoned one of the seven wise men of 
Greece. 

The kingdom of Macedon was first governed by Caranus, descended 
from Hercules, and it subsisted till the defeat of Perseus by the Ro- 
mans, a space of six hundred and twenty-six years. 

Thus we see that kingly government prevailed in all the states of 
Greece, during the early period of its history ; but this was soon 
changed everywhere, except in Macedonia, for a republican mode of 
government, which was diversified into as many various forms as there 
were different cities. These states, though totally independent, and 
sometimes at war with one another, were yet united by one common 
language, and one religion ; by the celebration of public games, at 
which they all assisted; and particularly by the famous Amphictyonic 
council, which met twice a-year at Thermopylae, to deliberate about 
the general interest of those states of whose deputies it was composed. 
The states that sent deputies to this council were the Thessalonians, 
the Thebans, the Dorians, the Ionians, the Perhanbeans, the Magnetes, 
the Locrians, the Octans, the Phthiotes, the Malcans, the Phocians, and 
the Dolphians. Each of the states sent two deputies to the council, 
one of whom was named Hieromnemon, and took care of religion ; the 
other was called Pylagoras, and attended to the civil interests of his 
community. After sacrificing to the gods, the deputies took an oath 
importing that they would never, in war or peace, oppose the interest 
of the Amphictyons. 

These different motives to confederacy united the Greeks for a time 
into a body of great power, and greater renown ; by which means they 

Who is said to have founded Thebes, and to have introduced sixteen letters of the 
Greek alphabet ? — What is related of Helena and of the siege of Troy ? — Who 
was the first sovereign of Corinth ? — Who was Periander? — By whom was Ma 
cedon first governed I — By what were these separate states united ? - What states 
met at the Amphictyonic council? 



INSTITUTIONS OF LYCURGUS. 81 

were able to dispute the empire of the world with the greatest mon- 
archy of the earth ; and not only to oppose, but even to rout and dis- 
perse the most numerous armies of Persia, and to oblige them to sub- 
mit to the most mortifying conditions of peace. But of all the states 
of Greece, Athens and Lacedasmon made the most capital figure. 



CHAPTER 2. 
INSTITUTIONS OF LYCURGUS. 

LACEDiEMON, in the beginning, was governed by kings, of whom thir- 
teen in succession held the reins of power, of the race of the Pelopidas. 
Under the Heraclidse, who succeeded them, the people admitted two 
kings who governed with equal authority. Aristodemus dying, left 
two sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, who were twins, and their mother 
pretending not to know which was first born, or which had the best 
claim, the people invested both with sovereign power; and this form of 
government continued to subsist for several centuries. It was during 
this period that the Helots, or peasants of Sparta, took up arms to vin- 
dicate their rights to the same privileges as the citizens enjoyed, of 
which Agis had deprived them. After a violent struggle they were 
subdued, and they and their posterity were condemned to perpetual 
slavery. To render their condition as disgraceful as it was miserable, 
all other slaves were called by the general name of Helots. 

To prevent the repetitions of these and the like disorders, Lycurgus 
instituted his celebrated body of laws, which continued, for a long 
time, to render Lacedaemon at once the terror and the umpire of the 
neighbouring kingdoms. But before he gave this proof of his patriot- 
ism, he gave, if possible, a still more striking proof of his disinterest- 
edness and love of justice. For having succeeded to the throne by 
the death of his elder brother, Polydectes, without issue, and the 
queen-dowager afterwards proving with child, she offered to destroy 
the birth, provided he would marry her, and admit her into a share of 
power. Lycurgus dissembled his resentment at so unnatural a propo- 
sal ; and she being delivered of a boy, he commanded the child to be 
brought to him, and presenting him to the people as their lawful sove- 
reign, by the name of Charilaus, he continued thenceforward to act not 
as king, but as regent. 

Lycurgus, after this, travelled into Crete, from thence into Asia, and 
afterwards into Egypt; and thus having made himself acquainted with 
the customs and institutions of the various countries through which he 
passed, he returned home; and being assisted by some of the leading 
men of the state, he published his celebrated code of laws, by which 
it was enacted, that the kings should retain their right of succession as 
before ; but their authority was greatly diminished by the institution 

Of this confederacy, what states were the most distinguished ? — Mention the 
first race of kings at Lacedicmon. — How came the people to admit two kings with 
equal authority ? — Did not Lycurgus institute a new code of laws? — What disin- 
terested proof did he give of his love of justice ? 



82 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of a senate, consisting of twenty-eight members, chosen from among 
the principal citizens, into which none were eligible till they were 
sixty years of age. The kings, however, still enjoyed all their out- 
ward marks of dignity and respect ; and in time of war they had com- 
mand of the army ; though upon these occasions they were subject to 
the control of the senate. 

The senators, too, were the more respectable, as they held their 
places for life ; and besides being possessed of so considerable a share of 
the executive, they were invested with the whole of the judicial power; 
and this last part of their duty they executed with such integrity and 
discretion, that though there lay an appeal from them to the people, 
their decrees were hardly ever reversed. Their authority, however, 
was about a century after tempered by the erection of a superior court, 
called the Court of the E'phori, consisting of five members, chosen 
annually into office from among the people ; and these had a power to 
anest and imprison even the persons of their kings, if they acted in a 
manner unbecoming their station. 

In order to reconcile the people to this mode of government, Lycur- 
gus resolved to divide all the lands of the state equally among the 
citizens, and to abolish the use of money. To effect the latter, he 
thought it sufficient to cry down the value of gold and silver, and to 
order that nothing but iron money should pass in exchange for any 
commodity. This coin also he fixed at so low a rate, that a cart and two 
oxen were required to carry home a sum of ten minoe, or about twenty 
pounds sterling. As this coin had no currency among the other states 
of Greece, it soon fell into contempt, even among the Spartans them- 
selves, so that money was at last brought into disuse. 

To enforce the practice of temperance and sobriety, Lycurgus further 
ordained, that all the men should eat in one common hall in public. 
To accustom the youth to early habits of discipline and obedience, he 
took their education out of the hands of their parents, and committed it 
to masters appointed by the state. Such children as were born with 
any capital defect, were exposed in a cavern near mount Taygetus ; and 
such as, upon a public view, were deemed to be sound and healthy, 
were adopted as children of the state, and delivered to their parents to 
be nursed with rigour and severity. At the age of seven they w T ere 
taken from their parents and delivered over to the classes for a public 
education, where their discipline was still more rigid and severe. 

To enable them the better to endure bodily pain without complaining, 
they were annually whipped at the altar of Diana, and the boy that 
bore this punishment with the greatest fortitude came off victorious. 
Plutarch tells us that he had seen several children expire under this 
cruel treatment. At twelve years of age they were removed into a class 
of a more advanced kind. They had now their skirmishes between 
small parties, and their mock fights between larger bodies ; and in 
these they sometimes fought with such obstinacy, that they were seer 



At what age were the senators chosen ? — With what power were the senators 
invested? — How were the lands of the state divided? — How was the practice 
uf temperance enforced? — How taught to endure bodily pain? 



INSTITUTIONS OF LYCURGUS. 83 

to lose their eyes, and even their lives, before they gave up the contest. 
Such was the constant discipline of their minority, which lasted till the 
age of thirty, before which they were not permitted to marry, to go into 
the troops, or to bear any office in the state. 

The discipline of the virgins was as severe as that of the young men. 
They were inured to a life of labour and industry till they were twenty 
years of age, before which time they were not allowed to be marriage- 
able. They had also their peculiar exercises. They ran, wrestled, 
and pitched the bar; and performed all these feats before the whole 
body of the citizens. An education so manlike, did not fail to bestow 
upon the Spartan women equal vigour of body and mind. They were 
bold, hardy, and patriotic ; filled with a sense of honour, and a love of 
military glory. Some foreign women remarking to the wife of Leoni- 
das, that the Spartan women alone knew how to govern the men, she 
boldly replied, "The Spartan women alone bring forth men." A mo- 
ther was known to give her son, who was going to battle, his shield, 
with this gallant advice, " Return with it, or return upon it ;" thereby 
in effect telling him, that rather than throw it away in flight, he should 
be borne home upon it dead. 

The Spartans were expressly forbid to exercise any mechanic art. 
War was their chief occupation, and in time of peace they employed 
themselves in hunting, or bodily exercises. The Helots, or slaves, 
tilled their lands for them, and received for their labour a bare subsist- 
ence. These unhappy men were in a manner bound to the soil, nor 
was it even lawful to sell them to strangers, or to make them free : 
nay, if at any time their numbers increased to such a degree as to ex- 
cite the suspicion of their cruel masters, there was a Cryptia, or secret 
act, by which it was permitted to destroy them without mere)'". Thu- 
cydides relates, that two thousand of these slaves disappeared at once, 
without ever after being heard of. 

The citizens being possessed, by means of their slaves, of compe- 
tence and leisure, were almost always in company in their large com- 
mon halls, where they met and conversed with one another. The love 
of their country was their ruling passion, and all self-interest seemed 
lost in the general wish for the welfare of the public. Pedarctus hav- 
ing missed the honour of being chosen one of the three hundred, con- 
verted this disappointment into joy, " that there were three hundred 
.better men in Sparta than himself." 

The Spartans were forbid to make frequent war upon the same peo- 
ple, lest they should teach their discipline to others ; and their first and 
most inviolable maxim was never to turn their backs on the enemy, 
however unequal to them in numbers, nor ever to deliver up their arms 
but with their life. Archilochus, the poet, was obliged to quit the city 
for having asserted in one of his poems, that it was better for a man to 
lose his arms than his life. Thus depending upon their valour alone, 
their legislator would not allow them to wall their city. 

Relate the discipline of the Virgins. — What was the Spartans' chief occupa- 
tion ? — What appeared to be their ruling passion ? — Mention one of their warlike 
maxims. 



84 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

In order to render these institutions as lasting - as they were excellent, 
Lycurgus pretended that something was still wanting to the completion 
of his plan, and that it was necessary for him to go and consult the 
oracle of Delphos. In the mean time, he persuaded his countrymen to 
take an oath for the strict observance of all his laws till his return, and 
then left Sparta with a firm resolution of never seeing it more, and thus 
to oblige his countrymen, by the oath they had taken, to observe his 
laws for ever. When he arrived at Delphos, he inquired of the oracle, 
whether the laws he had made were sufficient to render the Lacedaemo- 
nians happy ; and being told that they were, he sent this answer to 
Sparta, and then voluntarily starved himself to death. Others say that 
he died in Crete, ordering his body to be burnt, and his ashes to be 
thrown into the sea. 

The first opportunity which the Spartans had, to display the superi- 
ority of their power among the neighbouring states, was in the war 
between them and the Messenians. This war lasted twenty years ; but 
at length the Messenians being overthrown, and besieged in the city of 
Ithoe, they were obliged to submit to the Spartans. After a rigorous 
subjection of thirty-nine years, the Messenians made one effort more 
for the recovery of their liberty, under the conduct of Aristomenes, who 
thrice defeated the Spartan army, and as often merited the Hecatom- 
phonia, a sacrifice due to those who had killed one hundred of the 
enemy hand to hand in battle. But the Spartans being headed by the 
famous Athenian poet and schoolmaster, Tyrtseus, who inflamed their 
courage by his songs and orations, the Messenians were at last obliged 
to abandon their country, which was added to the territory of Sparta, 
(A. M. 3380) ; and thus rendered that kingdom one of the most power- 
ful states in all Greece. 

CHAPTER 3. 

INSTITUTIONS OF SOLON. 

The happy effects produced at Sparta by the institutions of Lycur- 
gus at last inspired the Athenians with a desire of being governed by 
written laws ; and the first person they pitched upon for a legislator 
was Draco, a man of equal integrity and wisdom, but rigid and severe 
in the highest degree. Draco inflicted death on all crimes, without ex- 
ception, and being asked why he did so, replied, " Small crimes deserve 
death, and I have no higher punishment even for the greatest." His 
laws indeed were so severe, that they were said to be written not with 
ink, but with blood ; but their severity defeated their intention, it being 
impossible to carry them into execution, and they fell into disuse. The 
people, from the neglect and contempt of laws, soon grew more licen- 
tious than ever they had been before any written laws existed. It was 
in this distressful state of the republic, that Solon was applied to for 
his advice. 

Why did Lycurgus leave his country?— In what war were the Spartans first 
engaged ? — What induced the Athenians to improve their government, and whom 
did »hey choose as legislator ? 



INSTITUTIONS OF SOLON. 85 

►Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece,* and had given 
repeated proofs of his wisdom before he was advanced to the office of 
legislator. He was sensible that there were certain disorders in the 
state that were altogether incurable ; and with these, therefore, he 
resolved not in the least to meddle. In a word, as he himself declared, 
he gave his countrymen not the best of all possible laws, but the best 
they were capable of receiving. His first step was to abolish the debts 
of the poor, who had been grievously oppressed by the rich, owing to 
the exorbitant interest they exacted from them. But to do this with the 
least injury he could to the creditor, he raised the value of money a 
little, and by that means nominally increased their riches. 

He next repealed all the laws of Draco, except those against murder. 
He then proceeded to the regulation of offices, employments, and 
magistracies, all which he left in the hands of the rich. He divided 
the rich citizens into three classes, ranging them according to their 
incomes. Those that had five hundred measures yearly, as well in 
corn as liquids, were placed in the first rank ; those that had three hun- 
dred were placed in the second; and those that had but two hundred 
made up the third. All the rest of the citizens, whose income fell short 
of two hundred measures, were comprised in a fourth and last class, 
and were considered as incapable of holding any employment what- 
ever. 

But to compensate for this exclusion, he gave every private citizen 
a right to vote in the great assembly of the whole body of the' people. 
And this, indeed, was a right of a most important nature ; for by the 
laws of Athens it was permitted, after the decision of the magistrates, 
to appeal to the general assembly of the people ; and thus, in time,' all 
causes of weight and consequence came before them. 

To counteract the influence of a popular assembly, Solon gave a 
greater weight to the court of Areopagus, and also instituted anothei 
council, consisting of four hundred. He also ordained, that none should 
be admitted into the Areopagus but such as had passed through the 
office of archon. By this means the dignity, and consequently the au- 
thority, of the court were greatly increased : and such was its reputa- 
tion for integrity and discernment, that the Romans sometimes referred 
causes, which were too intricate for their own decision, to the determi- 
nation of this tribunal. The business of the council of four hundred 
was to judge upon appeals from the Areopagus, and maturely to ex- 
amine every question before it came before the general assembly of the 
people. 

Solon's particular laws for the administration of justice were more 
numerous and equally judicious. To promote a spirit of patriotism, 
and prevent all selfish indifference about the concerns of the republic, 
he ordained, that whoever in public dissensions espoused neither party, 

* The others were, Thales, the Milesian, Chile-, of Lacedtemon, Pittacus, of Mity 
lene, Periander, of Corinth, and Bias and Cleobulus, whose birth-places are uncertain. 



What was the character of Solon ? — What laws of Draco did he repeal ? — 
What other measures did he adopt ? — What was the business of the Four Hun- 
dred ? 

a 



S6 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

out remained neuter, should be declared infamous, condemned to per- 
petual exile, and to have all his estates confiscated. From a similar 
motive, he permitted every person to espouse the quarrel of any one 
that was injured or insulted. 

He allowed every one that was childless to dispose of his wealth as 
he pleased, without being- obliged to leave it to the next of kin. By 
this means, the natural dependence of the young upon the old was 
strengthened and increased. He lessened the rewards of the victors at 
the Olympic and Isthmian games, and bestowed the money thus saved 
upon the widows and children of those who had fallen in the service 
of their country. To encourage industry, he empowered the Areopagus 
to inquire into every man's method of procuring a livelihood, and to 
punish such as had no visible way of doing so. 

With the like view he ordained, that a son should not be obliged to 
support his father in old age or necessity, if the latter had neglected 
to give him some trade or calling; and all illegitimate children were 
exempted from the same duty, as they owed nothing to their parents 
but the stigma of their birth. No one was allowed to revile another 
in public ; the magistrates were obliged to be particularly circumspect 
in their behaviour ; and it was even death for an archon to be taken 
drunk. 

This celebrated lawgiver, having bound the Athenians, by a public 
oath, religiously to observe his institutions, at least for the space of a 
hundred'years, set out on his travels, leaving his countrymen to become 
habituated to the new form of government. But their former animosi- 
ties began to revive, when that authority was removed, which alone 
could hold them in subjection. The factions of the state were headed 
by three different leaders, Pisistratus, Megacles, and Lycurgus. Of 
these, Pisistratus was at once the most powerful, the most artful, and 
in the end the most successful. He had many virtues, and hardly a 
single vice, except that of an inordinate ambition. He was learned 
himself, and an encourager of learning in others. Cicero says he was 
the first that made the Athenians acquainted with the works of Homer; 
that he disposed them in the order in which we now have them, and 
first caused them to be read at the feasts called Panathencea. 

By his promises, his professions, his liberality, and address, he had 
so far gained upon the affections of his countrymen, that he was upon 
the point of making himself master of the government, when he had 
the mortification to see Solon return, after an absence of ten years, fully 
apprised of his treacherous designs, and determined, if possible, to pre- 
vent their completion. This, however, he could not do for any length 
of time : for Pisistratus gave himself several wounds, which he pre- 
tended to have received in the cause of the people; and in that condi- 
tion, with his body all bloody, he ordered himself to be carried into the 
market-place, where by his complaints and eloquence, he so inflamed 
the minds of the populace, that he obtained a guard of fifty men for 



What laws resDecting the leaving of property? — What laws respecting falhers 
and sons? — Wno were the leaders that headed the factions? — And what was the 
character of Pisistratus ? — What stratagems did Pisistratus adopt ? 



PREPARATIONS OF DARIUS. 87 

the security of his person. Having now got the rudiments of a stand' 
ing army, he soon increased it to such a degree, as to enable him to set 
all opposition at defiance. In a little time, therefore, he seized upon 
the citadel, and in effect, usurped the supreme power. Solon did not 
long survive the liberties of his country. He died soon after, at the 
age of eighty, admired and lamented by all the states of Greece, as 
the greatest legislator, and, excepting Homer, the greatest poet, that 
had hitherto appeared. 

By adhering to the same arts by which he had acquired his power, 
Pisistratus contrived to maintain himself in the possession of it to his 
death, and transmitted it to his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. These 
young men seemed to tread in the footsteps of their father ; they encou- 
raged learning and learned men ; they invited to their court Anacreon, Si- 
monides, and other poets, and honoured them with their friendship, and 
loaded them with presents. Hipparchus was slain by his subjects, 
after a reign of eighteen years ; and his brother Hippias, dreading the 
same fate, endeavoured to fortify himself by foreign alliances, and par- 
ticularly by one with the Lacedgemonians ; but in this he was prevented 
by the family of the Alcmaeonidae, who had been banished from Athens 
at the beginning of the usurpation, and who, having rebuilt the temple 
of Delphos in a most magnificent manner, had secured the priestess in 
their interest. 

Whenever, therefore, the Spartans came to consult the oracle, they 
never received any promise of the god's assistance, but upon condition 
of setting Athens free. This task, therefore, they resolved to under- 
take; and, though unsuccessful in their first attempt, they at last de- 
throned the tyrant the very same year (A. M. 3496,) in which the kings 
were expelled from Rome. The family of Alcmeeon were chiefly in- 
strumental in this great work ; but the people seemed fonder of ac- 
knowledging their obligations to Harmodius and Aristogeton, who had 
been the principal cause of the death of Hipparchus, and who struck 
the first blow. Their names were held in the highest veneration ; and 
their statues were erected in the market-place ; an honour which had 
never been paid to any one before. 

CHAPTER 4. 

PREPARATIONS OF DARIUS FOR THE INVASION OF GREECE. 

Though Hippias, upon being driven from the throne, was obliged to 
abandon his native country, he did not abandon all hopes of being able, 
some time or other, to recover his lost power. He first applied to the 
Lacedsemonians, and that people seemed sufficiently willing to espouse 
his cause. But before they undertook to assist him in re-ascending the 
throne, they thought it prudent to consult the other states of Greece 
with regard to the propriety of the measure ; and finding them all to be 
totally averse to it, they abandoned the tyrant and his cause for ever. 



What did the sons of Pisistratus effect? — Whose names were held in venera- 
tion ? — What success did Hippias receive from the Spartans ? 



88 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Hippias, disappointed in his hopes of aid from the Lacedaemonians, 
had recourse to Artaphernes, governor of Sardis, for the king of Persia. 
To him he represented the facility with which an entire conquest might 
be made of Athens ; and the Persian court readily ad,opted the propo- 
sal. When the Athenians, therefore, sent a messenger into Persia to 
vindicate their proceedings with regard to Hippias, they received foi 
answer, "That if they wished to be safe, they must admit Hippias for 
their king." But these gallant republicans had too ardent a passion for 
liberty, and too rooted an aversion to slavery, patiently to submit to so 
imperious a mandate. They, therefore, returned to it a iiat and per- 
emptory refusal. And from that time forward the Athenians and Per- 
sians began to prepare for commencing hostilities against each other. 

The Persian monarch was, at that time, the most powerful sovereign 
in the universe ; whereas the small state of Athens did not contain 
above twenty thousand citizens, ten thousand strangers, and about fifty 
or sixty thousand servants. The state of Sparta, which afterwards took 
such a considerable share, and made so capital a figure in the war 
against Persia, did not contain above nine thousand citizens, and about 
thirty thousand peasants. The restoration of Hippias was not the only 
cause of quarrel between the Persians and the Athenians. The Greek 
colonies of Ionia, iEolia, and Caria, had been subdued by Croesus, king 
of Lydia ; and he, in turn, sinking under the power of Cyrus, his con- 
quests, of course, fell in with the rest of his dominions. These colo- 
nies seized upon every opportunity of delivering themselves from the 
Persian yoke, and recovering their ancient independence. In this they 
were now encouraged by Histiseus, the governor, or tyrant, as he was 
called, of Miletus ; for all the Persian governors of these provinces 
were by the Greeks called tyrants. 

By his direction, Aristagoras, his deputy, first applied to the Lace- 
daemonians for assistance ; and failing of success in that quarter, lie 
next had recourse to the Athenians, who were at this time inflamed 
with the highest resentment against the Persian monarch, on account 
of his haughty mandate with regard to the restoration of Hippias: and 
they supplied the Ionians with twenty ships, to which the Eretrians 
and Euboeans added five more. Aristagoras then entered the Persian 
territories, and penetrating into the heart of Lydia, he burnt Sardis, the 
capital city ; but he was soon after deserted by the Athenians, and after 
maintaining the struggle for the space of six years, he was obliged to 
fly into Thrace, where he was cut off, with all his followers. Histia3us 
himself, being taken prisoner with a few of the insurgents, was con- 
ducted to Artaphernes, and that inhuman tyrant immediately ordered 
him to be crucified, and his head to be sent to Darius. 

The conclusion of this war tended no less to inflame the pride and 
presumption of the Persians, than to inspire them with the ambitious 
thoughts of making an entire conquest of Greece. Accordingly, Darius, 
in the twenty-eighth year of his reign, having recalled all his other 
generals, sent his son-in-law, Mardonius, to command throughout the 



What reply did the Athenians give to the Persian king? — Mention the popular 
lion of Athens and Sparta. — What occurred to Aristagoras and Histixus ? 



PERSIAN INVASION 89 

maritime parts of Asia, and particularly to revenge me burning of Sar- 
dis. But his fleet being shattered in a storm, in doubling the cape of 
Mount Athos, his army repulsed, and himself wounded by the Thra- 
cians, he was displaced, and Darius appointed two older and abler gen- 
erals, Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, son of the late governor of 
Sardis, in his stead. 

Previously, however, to his invasion of Greece, he sent heralds inte 
that country to require submission from the different states, or to 
threaten them with his vengeance in case of refusal. The lesser states, 
intimidated by his power, readily submitted ; but when the heralds 
demanded of the Athenians and Spartans earth and water, the usual 
method of requiring submission from inferior states, these spirited 
republicans threw the one into a well, and the other into a ditch, and 
tauntingly bid them take earth and water from thence. And they even 
resolved to punish the iEginetans for having basely submitted to the 
power of Persia. These people, indeed, made some resistance ; and 
they carried on a naval war against the Athenians ; but these last hav- 
ing overcome them, increased their own navy to such a degree, as to 
render it almost an equal match for that of Persia. 

CHAPTER 5. 
INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS. 

Darius, in the mean time, sent away his generals, Datis and Arta- 
phernes, with a fleet of six hundred ships, and an army of an hundred 
and twenty thousand men ; and their instructions were to give up 
Athens and Eretria to be plundered ; to burn all the houses and temples 
of both; and to lead away the inhabitants into captivity, and the army 
was provided with a sufficient number of chains for binding the pri- 
soners. To oppose this formidable invasion, the Athenians had only 
about ten thousand men, but all of them animated with that invincible 
spirit which the love of liberty ever inspires. 

They were at this time headed by Miltiades, Themistocles, and 
Aristides, three of the greatest generals and statesmen their country 
ever produced. The first was looked upon as the ablest commander; 
the second was so fond of a popular government, and so eager to ingra- 
tiate himself with his fellow-citizens, that he was frequently accused 
of acts of partiality. Some one remarking to him that he would make 
an excellent magistrate, if he had more impartiality, he replied, " God 
forbid that I should ever sit upon a tribunal where my friends should 
find no more favour than strangers." Aristides was so rigidly and 
inflexibly just, that his name has descended to posterity as almost ano- 
ther term for justice. 

The first brunt of the war fell upon the Eretrians, whc shut them- 
selves up in their town ; which after a siege of seven days, was taken 

Whom did Darius send to the coasts of Asia? — What did the Persian heralds 
demand from Greece ? — What instructions d'ul Darius give to his generals? — By 
whom were the Grecians headed ? 

8* 



90 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

by storm, and reduced to ashes. The inhabitants were put in chains, 
and sent as the first fruits of victory to the Persian monarch, who 
treated them with lenity, and gave them a village in the country of 
Cissa for their residence ; where Apollonius Tyanscus found their 
descendants six hundred years after. 

Elated with this success, the Persians marched under the direction 
of Hippias, into the plains of Marathon, about ten miles distant from 
Athens. The Athenians, not thinking- themselves singly equal to op- 
pose the enemy, sent to the Spartans for assistance, and would certainly 
have obtained it, had it not been for the foolish superstition of the Spar- 
tans, which would not allow them to begin a march before the full 
moon. They then applied to the other states of Greece ; but these 
were too much intimidated by the power of Persia to venture to move 
in their defence. 

Obliged, therefore, to depend upon their own courage alone, they col- 
lected all their forces, to the number of ten thousand men, and appoint- 
ed Miltiades to the chief command ; who, sensible of the inferiority 
of his numbers when compared to those of the enemy, drew up his 
army at the foot of a mountain, so that the enemy should not be able 
to surround him, or charge him in the rear; at the same time he forti- 
fied his flanks with a number of large trees, that were cut down for the 
purpose. Datis saw the advantage which the Athenians must derive 
from this masterly disposition ; but relying on the superiority of his 
numbers, and unwilling to wait till the Spartan succours should arrive, 
he resolved to begin the engagement. 

The signal for battle, however, was no sooner given, than the Athe- 
nians, instead of waiting for the onset of the enemy, according to their 
usual custom, rushed in upon them with irresistible fury. The Persians 
regarded this first step as the result of madness and despair, rather than 
of deliberate courage ; but they were soon convinced of their mistake, 
when they found that the Athenians maintained the charge with the 
same spirit with which they had begun it. Miltiades had purposely 
and judiciously made his wings much stronger than his centre, which 
was commanded by Themistocles and Aristides. The Persians, avail- 
ing themselves of this circumstance, attacked the centre with great 
bravery, and were just upon the point of making it give way, when the 
wings, having become victorious, suddenly wheeled about, and falling 
upon the enemy in both flanks at once, threw them into disorder. The 
rout in a moment became universal, and they fled to their ships with 
great precipitation. 

The Athenians pursued them as far as the beach, and even set seve- 
ral of their ships on fire. It was on this occasion that Cynsegirus, the 
brother of the Poet iEschylus, seized one of the enemy's ships with 
his right hand, as they were pushing it off from the shore. When his 
right hand was cut off, he laid hold of the vessel with his left; and 
that likewise being lopped off, he at last seized it with his teeth, and 



How did the Persians treat the Eretrians? — In what position did Miltiades plaru 
his army? — What superstition delayed the Spartan (brces? — Describe the battle 
of* the Persians and Athenians. 



MARCH OF XERXES TO GREECE. 91 

in that rrianner expired. Seven of the enemy's ships were taken, and 
above six thousand of their troops left dead on the field of battle, not 
to mention those who were drowned as they were endeavouring- to 
escape, or were consumed in the ships that were set on fire ; while the 
loss of the Greeks was not above two hundred. (A. M. 3514.) Hip- 
pias, who was the chief cause of the war, is thought to have perished 
in this battle, though some say he escaped, and afterwards died mise- 
rably at Lemnos. 

Of the marble which the Persians had brought with them, to erect a 
monument in memory of their expected victory, the Athenians now 
caused a statue to be made by the celebrated sculptor, Phidias, to trans- 
mit to posterity the remembrance of their defeat. Monuments were 
also erected to the memory of all those who had fallen in the battle ; 
and upon these were inscribed their own names, and the name of the 
tribe to which they belonged. To express their gratitude to Miltiades, 
they caused a picture to be painted by one of their most eminent artists, 
named Polygnotus, in which that great commander was represented at 
the head of the other generals, animating the troops, and setting them 
an example of bravery. 

But their gratitude to this celebrated warrior, however sincere, was 
by no means lasting; for, having received a wound in an expedition 
against the Parians, and being thereby prevented from appearing in 
public to defend himself from a charge of bribery, which was brought 
against him by Xantippus, he was condemned to lose his life. This 
severe sentence, however, the Athenians had not the effrontery to exe- 
cute, and they therefore changed it into a fine of fifty talents ; and as 
this was a sum which Miltiades could not pay, he was thrown into 
prison, where he soon after died. But the Athenians would not allow 
his body to be buried till the fine was paid. His son Cimon, through 
the kindness of his friends, at last paid the fine, and procured his father 
an honourable interment. 

CHAPTER G. 

MARCH OF XERXES TO GREECE. — 480 B. C. 

Darius was preparing for another invasion of Greece when death 
put an end to his ambitious prospects. His son, Xerxes, however, 
was determined to execute the plan which his father had formed, and 
he entered into a confederacy with the Carthaginians, that while the 
Persians attacked Greece, the Carthaginians should fall upon the Gre- 
cian colonies that were settled in Sicily. Hamilcar, their general, 
with the money received from Xerxes, engaged a great number of 
soldiers, out of Spain, Gaul, and Italy, in his service. Xerxes set out 
from Susa in the fifth year of his reign, and marched towards Sardis, 
the place of rendezvous foi the whole land army, while the fleet ad- 

What were the losses sustained by the contest? — What honours were conferred 
on the victors? — And what their ingratitude to Miltiades? — With whom did 
Xerxes enter into a confederacy? 



92 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

<?anced along the coast of Asia Minor to the Hellespont. It is related 
of Xerxes that he gave orders to have a passage cut through Mount 
Athos, a peninsula in Macedonia, which extends into the Archipelago, 
either to avoid a tempestuous sea, or for the vanity of signalizing him- 
self by an extraordinary enterprise. 

But a traveller who lived in the time of Henry VIII., and who pass- 
ed over Mount Athos, doubts the truth of the fact, as he could per- 
ceive no traces of such a work. Xerxes, in passing through Cylene, 
was not only entertained by Pythius, a Lydian, the most opulent 
prince of those times, but was offered by him his wealth. With sin- 
cere expressions of acknowledgment, Xerxes declined the acceptance. 
Generous as Pythius's offer must appear, yet it is said that he was one 
of the most penurious princes in the world, and extremely cruel and 
inhuman to his subjects — keeping them continually employed in the 
gold and silver mines which he had in his territories, to the neglect of 
husbandry and the cultivation of his estates. 

When arrived at the Hellespont, Xerxes was desirous to behold a 
great naval spectacle. For this purpose a throne was erected on an 
eminence, from which he beheld the sea crowned with vessels, and the 
land covered with troops. At first his heart was highly elated on be- 
holding the vast extent of his power, but soon reflecting that of so 
many hundred thousands, in a hundred years time, not one would be 
left, his joy was turned into grief, and he wept. Another subject 
would more justly have merited his tears, had he considered the re- 
proaches he deserved for being the instrument of shortening the lives 
of millions of people, whom his ambition was about to sacrifice in an 
unjust and unnecessary war. Xerxes asked his uncle, Artabanes, his 
opinion of the war. Artabanes expressed his fears on two accounts — 
the land and the sea — there is no country that can feed so vast an 
army, and there are no ports capable of receiving such a number of 
vessels. Xerxes replied, that if men so narrowly examined all the 
inconveniences that may attend them, no signal enterprises would be 
attempted ; and that if his predecessor had observed so timorous a rule 
of policy, the Persian empire would never have attained its present 
height of greatness and glory. 

Though Xerxes did not follow the advice of Artabanes, he paid him 
the highest marks of honour, and sent him back to Susa, to take upon 
him the administration of the empire during his absence, and for that 
purpose vested him with his whole authority. Xerxes caused a bridge 
of boats to be built across the Hellespont for the passage of his forces. 
A violent storm soon after breaking down the bridge, Xerxes, it is said, 
in the transport of passion, commanded two pair of chains to be thrown 
into the sea, as if to shackle and confine it, and ordered his men to 
lash it with their whips, and tell the troublesome elements that their 
master will find means to pass its waters in spite of its billows and re- 
sistance. Xerxes then commanded two other bridges to be built, — one 

What the riches and character pf Pythius ? — Relate Xerxes' reflection on sur 
veying his troops. — What was the advice of Artabanes ? — How did Xerxes chas- 
tise the Hellespont ? 



MARCH OF XEEXES TO GREECE. 93 

for the army to pass over, and the other for the bag-gage and beasts of 
burden. When the work was completed Xerxes poured out libations 
into the sea, and turning his face towards the sun (the principal object 
of the Persian worship) he implored the assistance of that god in his 
enterprise ; this done, he threw the vessel, with a golden cup, and a 
Persian scimitar, into the sea. Having passed over with his army, 
Xerxes directed his march across the Thracian Chersonesus, and arri- 
ved at Dor, where he encamped and reviewed his army. 

The land-army brought out of Asia consisted of 1,700,000 foot and 
80,000 horse, besides the attendants upon the army, which were 20,000. 
When he entered Europe, the people that submitted to him added to his 
army 300,000. His fleet, when it set out of Asia, consisted of 1,207 
vessels, containing 277,610 men: the European nations augmented 
his fleet with 120 vessels and 21,000 men. Besides these were his 
small galleys, transport ships, the vessels that carried provisions, &c. 
Thus, when Xerxes arrived at Thermopylae, his land and sea forces 
amounted to 2,011,010 men, without including eunuchs, women, and 
such as usually follow an army. So that the whole number of souls 
\hat followed the expedition amounted to 5,283,220. This is the com- 
mutation of Herodotus, in which both Plutarch and Isocrates agree. 
We have no account in history of any army so numerous as this ; and 
amongst all these millions of men, not one could vie with Xerxes in 
beauty — either in the comeliness of his face or the tallness of his person. 
But this is a poor pre-eminence when attended with no other. Justin 
says that this vast body of forces wanted a chief, — " Huictanto agmini 
dux clef iiit." 

Herodotus tells us that, in order to calculate their forces, they as- 
sembled 10,000 men, and ranked them as close as possible ; then de- 
scribing a circle round them, they erected a low wall upon that circle. 
The whole army, by passing successively through, and filling this space, 
was numbered. 

Lacedfemon and Athens, the two most powerful cities of Greece, and 
the cities against which Xerxes was most exasperated, were not asleep 
while so formidable an army was approaching. They had sent spies 
to obtain the number and quality of his forces; but being discovered 
they were about to be put to death. Xerxes countermanded it, and 
gave orders that they should be conducted through the army and sent 
home. The Grecians sent deputies at the same time to Argos, into 
Sicily, to the isles of Corcyra and Crete, to desire succours from them, 
and to form a league against the common enemy; they received some 
denial and some promises, but no assistance. 

r l he Athenians passed a decree to recall home all the people that were 
in banishment, and amongst the rest Aristides, who they feared might 
join their enemies; and they made peace with the people of iEgiiia, 
with whom they were then at war. Xerxes proceeded by rapid marches 
to Thermopylae, a narrow defile twenty-five feet broad, on the Sinus 
Maliacus, between Thessaly and Phocis. Here the Lacedaemonians 

Of what number did the united armies' consist? — How did he calculate the 
number of his forces ? — What steps were taken by the Athenians ? 



94 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

and Athenians, aided only by the Plateans, Thospians, and iEginites, 
determined to withstand the invader. 

CHAPTER 7. 
DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS IN GREECE. 

It must excite astonishment to see with what a handful of troops 
the Grecians opposed the almost innumerable army of Xerxes. Pau- 
k sanias says, all their forces together amounted only to 11,200 men ; of 
which number 4,000 only were employed at Thermopylae to defend the 
pass. Xerxes, on advancing near the pass, was surprised to find they 
were prepared to dispute his passage. He had flattered himself that 
on his approach they would betake themselves to flight; and still en- 
tertaining these hopes, he waited four days to give them time to retreat. 
He then endeavoured to gain Leonidas, one of the Spartan kings, by 
magnificent promises, which were rejected with indignation. Xerxes 
then wrote to him to deliver up his arms ; Leonidas, in a style truly la* 
conical, answered, "Come and take them." The Median forces were 
sent first, but they could not sustain the charge of the Grecians. — 
Xerxes' Persians, called the Immortal Band, next engaged, but with no 
better success. 

In this extremity he was directed by a secret path to the top of an 
eminence which overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces. Le- 
onidas now seeing it no longer possible to repulse the enemy, resolved 
to stay with three hundred Lacedaemonians who determined to die with 
their leader, and obliged the rest to retire. The Spartans entertained 
no hopes of either conquering or escaping, and looked upon Thermo- 
pylae as their burying-place. The king exhorted his men to take some 
nourishment, telling them that they should sup together with Pluto. 
They set up a shout, as if they had been invited to a banquet, and full 
of ardour advanced with their king to battle. The shock was exceed- 
ingly violent. Leonidas was one of the first that fell. At length, op- 
pressed by numbers, they were. all slain, except one man, who escaped 
to Sparta, where he was treated as a coward, till he had made glorious 
amends for it at the battle of Platea. 

Xerxes in this encounter lost above 20,000 men ; and he was made 
sensible of the difference between the valour of a few veteran troops 
and a confused multitude. The heroism of this band of Spartans was 
the seed of their ensuing victories. It taught the rest of Greece, by 
their example, either to vanquish or to perish. The same day on which 
passed the glorious action at Thermopylae, there was also an engage- 
ment at sea, between the two fleets, near Artemissa, a promontory of 
Euboea, upon the northern coast, towards the straits; at night both re- 
tired with nearly equal loss; and the following day another conflict 
equally indecisive took place. The Grecian fleet then sailed from 
thence to Salamis, a little isle near Attica. 

What, was the amount of the Grecian forces? — What number were at Thermo- 
pylae ? — Relate the valour of the Spartans. — What men did Xerxes lose, and what 
8is\ engagement happened on the same day? 



DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS. 95 

,. *.he mean time Xerxes entered Phocis, burned and plundered the 
cities <* the Phocians : and now the inhabitants of Peloponnesus re- 
solved -i abandon the rest of Greece, and bring all their forces within 
the isthmus ; over which they intended to build a wall from sea to sea, 
a space of nearly five English miles. The Athenians were highly pro- 
voked at so base a desertion. Consulting the oracle of Delphos, they 
received for answer, " There would be no way of saving the city but 
by walls of wood." The people were much divided about this ambi- 
guous expression; but Themistocles supposed it to intend shipping; 
and that the people should remove, for a time, from Athens, was mani- 
festly the will of the gods. It was not without much reluctance that 
the people consented to leave the city. The major part of them sent 
their fathers and mothers that were old, together with their wives and 
children, to the city of Trcezene,* the inhabitants of which received 
them with great generosity. 

Xerxes had sent off a detachment of his army to plunder the city of 
Delphi, in which were immense treasures ; and if we may believe He- 
rodotus and Diodorus Siculus, when they advanced near the temple of 
Minerva, the air suddenly grew dark, and a violent tempest arose, which 
severed the rocks from the mountains, and buried the greater part of 
the Persian troops. 

The other part of the army marched towards the city of Athens, 
which was deserted of its inhabitants, except a small number of citi- 
zens who had retired into the citadel, w T hich they bravely defended. 
Xerxes, having stormed the city, reduced it to ashes. 

As the Grecian fleet lay in the bay of Salamis, Xerxes gave command 
for a great number of his vessels to surround the island by night to pre- 
vent the Greeks quitting their post. Both sides prepared themselves 
for the battle. The Grecian fleet, under the command of Themistocles, 
consisted of 380 sail of ships. The enemy was much more numerous. 
Themistocles waited for a certain favourable wind, which arose usually 
at a certain hour, and which would be opposed to the enemy, to give 
the signal for battle. The Persians advanced with impetuosity — but 
the heat of their first attack was soon abated ; the wind was directly in 
their faces ; their heavy vessels were unwieldy — the number of their 
ships, in so narrow a place, only embarrassed them ; and the Ionians 
betook themselves to flight, and w r ere soon followed by the rest of the 
Persian fleet. A great number of the Persian ships were taken, a much 
greater number sunk on the occasion ; and many of their allies, who 
dreaded the king's cruelty, made the best of their w r ay into their own 
country. 

The remains of the Persian fleet retired towards the coast of Asia, 
and entered the Port of Cuma, a city of iEolia ; where they passed the 
winter, without daring afterwards to return to Greece. Xerxes, being 
alarmed for his safety, set out by night, leaving Mardonius behind him 

* A small city on the sea side, on the part of the Peloponnesus called Argolis. 

What happened Jo the Phocians and Athenians ? — What occurred to Xerxes 
near the Temple of Minerva? — Relate the events of the battle of Salamis. — 
Where did the Persian fleet pass the winter ? 



96 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

in Thessaly with an army of 300,000 men, to reduce Greece, if possible 
The rest of the army Xerxes took with him, and marched home by the 
way of the Hellespont. When arrived at the bridge, he found it broken 
down by the violence of the waves; and he was reduced to the neces- 
sity of crossing the Strait in a small boat, escaping as a fugitive to his 
own country. 

Mardonius, who wintered with his Persian troops in Thessaly, led 
them in the spring into Boeotia, and sent several Persian noblemen, 
with very advantageous proposals, to the Athenian people. He offered 
to rebuild their city, to advance them a considerable sum of money, to 
allow them to enjoy their own laws and customs, and to give them the 
command of all Greece. These proposals not being accepted by the 
Athenians, Mardonius marched his army a second time into Athens ; 
wasting and destroying whatever he found in his way. The Athenians 
a second time abandoned their city, and retired to Salamis. Mardonius 
then returned to Boeotia, and was followed by the Grecian army, under 
the command of Pausanias, king of Sparta, and of Aristides, general 
of the Athenians. 

CHAPTER 8. 
FINAL EXPULSION OF THE PERSIANS FROM GREECE. 

The Persians were overcome in a pitched battle at Platcea, and a 
great slaughter* ensued. Mardonius, dying of a wound he received in 
'the engagement, all his army betook themselves to flight. Artabazus 
made a timely retreat with about 40,000 men he commanded to Byzan- 
tium, and from thence he returned to Asia. Of all the rest of the Per- 
sian army, not 4,000 men escaped of that day's slaughter; and the 
Grecians were delivered from all farther invasions from that nation; 
no Persian army having ever appeared, after that time, on this side of 
the Hellespont. 

On the same day the Greeks fought the battle of Platrea, their naval 
forces obtained a memorable victory in Asia, over the remainder of the 
Persian fleet. For while that of the Greeks lay at iEgina, under the 
command of Leotychides, one of the kings of Sparta, and of Xanthip- 
pus the Athenian, ambassadors came to those generals from the lonians 
to invite them into Asia, to deliver the Grecian cities from their sub- 
jection to the barbarians. On this invitation they set sail for Asia. 
The Persians, hearing of their approach, retired to Mycale, a promon- 
tory of the continent of Asia; where their forces consisted of 100,000 
men. Here they drew their vessels ashore, and surrounded them with 
a strong rampart. The Grecians attacked them, and, with the help of 
the lonians, defeated their land army, forced their rampart, and burnt 
their vessels. 

* See engraving at the beginning of the History of Greece. 

What were Mardonius's proposals to the Athenians ? — Describe the final retreat 
of the Persians. — What occurred to the Persians at Mycale? — What orders did 
Xerxes leave on his retiring ? 



EXPULSION OF THE PERSIANS FROM GREECE. 97 

Xerxes, hearing of these overthrows, fled from Sardis, and retired 
into Persia, to be as far as possible out of the reach of his victorious 
enemies. But before he set out, he ordered, at the instigation of the 
Magi, that all the Grecian temples and images should be burned and 
demolished ; the Persians being professed enemies to images in divine 
worship; and not one escaped except the temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
The war, commonly called the war of Media, being terminated, (A. M. 
3526. B. C. 478,) the Athenians returned home, and sent for their wives 
and children, whom they had committed to their friends during the 
war, and began to think of re-building their city, which had been 
almost entirely destroyed by the Persians. They also proposed to sur- 
round it with strong walls, to secure it from farther violence. The 
Lacedaemonians, conceiving a jealousy against the measure, sent an 
embassy to Athens to dissuade them from the attempt ; but by the arti- 
fices of Themistocles, who was sent ambassador to Lacedaemon, the 
fortifications went on and were completed. 

Themistocles next turned his attention to finish the buildings and for- 
tifications of the Port of Piraeus ; a work which he began when he 
entered into office. Before his time they had no other port at Athens 
but that of Phalerus, which was neither large nor commodious. His 
design was to make the whole force of Athens, maritime. When the 
city of Athens was entirely rebuilt, the people endeavoured to make 
the Athenian state wholly popular. Aristides, seeing that it would be 
no easy matter to curb too high a people, who, in a measure, had their 
arms in their hands, passed a decree that the government should be 
common to all the citizens ; and that the Archons, who used to be 
chosen only out of the richest of its members, should, in future, be 
elected by the Athenian citizens, without distinction. By thus giving 
up the privilege to the people, he prevented commotions which might 
have proved fatal, not only to the Athenian state, but to all Greece. 

CHAPTER 9. 
TREASON OF PAUSANIAS — FLIGHT OF THEMISTOCLES. 

The Grecians (A. M. 3528. B. C. 476,) now sent a fleet to sea to de- 
liver such of their allies as were still under the yoke of the Persians, 
out of their hands. Pausanias commanded the fleet of the Lacedaemo- 
nians : and Aristides and Cimon that of the Athenians. They first de- 
livered the cities in the isle of Cyprus to their liberty ; then steering 
for the Hellespont they attacked and made themselves masters of the 
city of Byzantium. Pausanias, who from this time conceived thoughts 
of betraying his country, sought to gain the favour of Xerxes, offering 
to deliver the city of Sparta and all Greece into his hands if he would 
give him his daughter in marriage. The king returned a favourable 
answer, and remitted him large sums of money to second his designs. 
Dazzled with the prospect of his future greatness, Pausanias changed 
his conduct and behaviour : he laid aside the frugal manners of his 

What decree was passed by Aristides ? — What change occurred in Pausanias ? 
9 



98 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

country, and assumed the dress and state of the Persians. He treated 
the allies with insufferable insolence, and required extraordinary honours 
to be paid tc him. So different a deportment from that of Aristides 
and Cimon, at length alienated the Spartan soldiers, who placed them 
selves under the command and protection of the Athenians. 

Upon the repeated complaints the Spartan commonwealth received 
against Pausanias, they recalled him to account for his conduct. The 
evidence was not thought sufficient to criminate him till a letter, which 
a slave had orders from Pausanias to deliver to Xerxes, was put into 
the hands of the Ephori, from which his guilt was evident, and he fled 
and sheltered himself in the temple of Pallas. His pursuers, as they 
would not violate the sacred asylum by taking him out by force, closed 
the entrance with great stones, and tore off the roof to expose him to 
the inclemency of the weather, and left him to starve to death. 

Themistocles was also charged with being an accomplice of Pau- 
sanias ; but he ably rebutted the imputation. He was then in exile 
A passionate thirst of glory, and a strong desire to domineer, had made 
him so very odious to the citizens, that they had banished him from 
Athens, by ostracism, and he withdrew to Argos. From thence he fled 
first to Epirus, and thence to Admetus, king of Molossus. This was 
a dangerous choice ; for Themistocles had made the king his enemy by 
refusing him that aid he had previously solicited from the Athenians ; 
but Admetus, moved with compassion in seeing before him, as a sup- 
pliant, the greatest man of all Greece, and the conqueror of Asia, pro- 
mised him protection. 

Hitherto the cities of Greece had contributed sums of money for car- 
rying on the wars against the barbarians ; which not being made in a 
just and equal proportion, had caused great feuds. It was now thought 
proper to lodge in the island of Delos, the common treasure of Greece ; 
and to fix new regulations with regard to the public moneys ; so that an 
equitable rate, according to the revenue of each city, might be raised. 
But the chief business was to find a person of so uncorrupt a mind, as 
to discharge faithfully the difficult duty. All the allies cast their eyes 
on Aristides ; accordingly he was invested with full powers to levy the 
tax, relying entirely on his wisdom and justice ; and the citizens had 
no cause to repent their choice. He presided over the treasury with a 
disinterestedness and fidelity that have secured to him, to the latest 
posterity, the glorious surname of " the Just." 

CHAPTER 10. 

DEATH OF XERXES. 

Xerxes' ill success in his expedition against the Greeks caused him 
to renounce all thoughts of war and conquest ; he abandoned himself to 
luxury and pleasure. Artabanus, captain of the guards,* conspired 
* Not the uncle of Xerxes. 

What death did Pausanias die ? — Whither did Themistocles fly for safety? — 
In what island was the common treasury of Greece, and to what duty was Aris- 
tmes chosen ? — Who conspired against the life of Xerxes ? 



DEATH OF XERXES. 99 

against his sovereign ; and flattering himself with the hope of succeed- 
ing him in the throne, entered the king's chamber, and murdered him 
in his sleep. 

The Greeks give Artaxerxes, who now succeeded to the throne, the 
surname of Longimanus, from the length of his right hand. Had it not 
been for that blemish, he would have been the most graceful man of the 
age. He was still more remarkable for his goodness and generosity. 
He reigned about forty-nine years. His first object was to suppress the 
faction of Artabanus, and the next to overcome his brother Hystaspes, 
governor of Bactriana. 

According to Thucydides, Themistocles fled to this prince in the be- 
ginning of his reign ; but other authors, as Strabo, Plutarch, and Dido- 
rus, fix this incident under Xerxes, his predecessor. Dr. Prideaux is 
of the latter opinion ; he likewise thinks that the Artaxerxes in ques- 
tion, is the same with him who is called Ahasuerus in Scripture, and 
who married Esther; but we suppose with Archbishop Usher, that it 
was Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who espoused this illustrious Jew- 
ess. We have already noticed that Themistocles had fled to Admetus, 
king of the Molossi ; but by the threats of the Athenians he was com- 
pelled to favour his flight. He soon after took refuge in the house of 
Nicogenes, the most wealthy man of JEgeae in ./Eolae, and intimate 
with the lords of the Persian court. 

Nicogenes sent him under a strong guard to Susa, in one of those 
covered chariots, in which the Persians usually conveyed their wives. 
Being come to the Persian court, and admitted to an audience, he fell 
on his face before the king, in the Persian manner, and after rising up, 
" Great king," said he, by an interpreter, " I am Themistocles, the 
Athenian, who having been banished by the Greeks, am come to your 
court in hopes of finding an asylum," &c. — History informs us that the 
king considered Themistocles's arrival as a great happiness. 

The next day, on his being brought before the king, he presented him 
with 200 talents,* which sum he had promised to any one who would 
deliver him up, and which, consequently, was his due, as he had deli- 
vered up himself. He was afterwards desired to give an account of the 
affairs of Greece ; which he at first did by the assistance of an inter- 
preter; but it is said that when he had studied the Persian tongue 
twelve months, he spoke it with an ease and fluency equal to the Per- 
sians themselves. Artaxerxes treated him with uncommon marks of 
friendship and esteem ; gave him a palace and an equipage suitable to 
it, and settled on him a noble pension. 

It was afterwards judged necessary for the king's interest, that The- 
mistocles should reside in some city in Asia Minor. Accordingly, he 
was sent to Magnesia, situated on the Meander ; and for his support, 
besides the revenue of the city, which amounted to fifty talents, he had 
those of Myas and Lampsachus assigned him. Here he resided many 
years in the utmost splendour. 

* About 45,000/. sterling. 

Where did Themistocles take refuge? — How was he received by the Persian 
king ? — What presents did he receive, and where reside ? 



100 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

It is said that the conquests of Cimon, and the increasing power of 
the Athenians, gave Artaxerxes great uneasiness. To prevent the con- 
sequences, he resolved to send Themistocles into Greece, with a great 
army. Themistocles on this account was in great perplexity. How 
could he refuse a king who had heaped upon him favours so abundant 1 
*nd yet how could he carry arms against his country, and sully the 
glory of his former achievements 1 To rid himself of these inward 
struggles, he resolved to put an end to his life. He therefore prepared 
a solemn sacrifice, to which he invited his friends ; when, after taking 
a last farewell, he swallowed a dose of poison at Magnesia, in the 65th 
year of his age. When the king was told the cause and the manner of 
tils death, it raised his admiration. The Magnesians erected a monu- 
ment to his memory ; and his tomb was still standing in Plutarch's 
time, 600 years after. Themistocles was certainly one of the greatest 
men that Greece ever produced. 

The Egyptians, about this time, revolted from Artaxerxes, and made 
Icarus, prince of the Libyans, their king ; the Athenians also came to 
their assistance. The Persian forces were at first unsuccessful ; but a 
second army was victorious; Egypt submitted to the conquerors, and 
was reunited to the empire of Artaxerxes, in the 20th year of his reign. 
(A.M. 3550. B.C. 454.) 

It is an essential part of the history of this prince to notice what is 
recorded in Scripture. In the seventh year of the reign of Artaxerxes, 
Esdras obtained of the king and his seven counsellors, an ample com- 
mission, empowering him to return to Jerusalem, with all such Jews 
as would follow him thither, to settle the Jewish government and reli- 
gion. From the commission given him, it appears that this prince had 
a high veneration for the God of Israel ; for he adds, (A. M. 3537, 
B. C. 467. 1 Esdras, 7.) Let all things be performed after the law of 
God diligently, unto the most high God, that wrath come not upon the 
kingdom of the king and his son. Esdras exercised these powers faith- 
fully for thirteen years ; till Nehemiah brought a new commission from 
the Persian court. 

Nehemiah was also a Jew of distinguished merit and piety, and one 
of the cup-bearers to king Artaxerxes. One day as he was waiting 
upon the king, the latter observing an air of sadness in Nehemiah's 
countenance, asked him the cause of it. Nehemiah mentioned the ca- 
lamitous state of his country, and humbly asked permission to go to 
Jerusalem, to repair the fortifications. The kings of Persia, his pre- 
decessors, he said, had permitted the Jews to rebuild the temple, but 
not the walls of Jerusalem. The king immediately permitted him, and 
ordered a body of horse to escort him thither. It is from this decree 
of Artaxerxes, in the twentieth year of his reign, that we date the be- 
ginning of the seventy weeks, mentioned in the prophecy of Daniel, 
after which the Messiah was to appear, and to be cut off, but not for 
himself. 

What was the cause of his death ? — Was there not a revolt of the Egyptian* ? — 
Did not the Persian king favour the Jews? — What is related of Nehemiah and 
Esdras ? 



RISE OF PERICLES. 101 

When Esdras was in power, as his chief object was to restore reli- 
gion to its ancient purity, he disposed the books of Scripture into their 
proper order ; to these he added the history of his own times, which 
was finished by Nehemiah. While Esdras and Nehemiah were com- 
piling- the latter part of that great work, Herodotus, whom profane au- 
thors call the father of history, began to write. Thus the latest au- 
thors of the Scripture history flourished about the same time with the 
first authors of the Grecian. 

CHAPTER 11. 

RISE OF PERICLES — PUBLIC SERVICES OF CIMON. 

From the banishment of Themistocles, and the death of Aristides, 
two citizens, Cimon and Pericles, divided all authority in Athens. 
Pericles, who was descended from the most illustrious families of 
Athens, was much younger than Cimon. He possessed different qual- 
ities from those of his rival, seeking power by bringing in the wildest 
democracy. All barriers of the constitution were thrown down by 
Pericles, and power given to the lowest of the people. 

Pericles was brought up under the most learned men of his age, one 
of whom was Anaxagoras of Clazomene, who instructed him in that 
part of philosophy which relates to nature, and is therefore called 
Physics. Pericles, however, did not devote himself to it as a philo- 
sopher but a statesman. The talent he cultivated with the greatest care 
was eloquence. To this all his other studies were directed ; exalting 
the study of philosophy (said Plutarch) with the dye of rhetoric. The 
poets, his contemporaries, used to say, that his eloquence was so pow- 
erful, that he lightened, thundered, and agitated all Greece. There 
was no resisting the solidity of his arguments, or the harmony of his 
language ; whence it was said that the goddess of persuasion, with all 
her graces, resided on his lips. It is related of him, that he never 
spoke in public, till he had besought the gods not to suffer any ex- 
pression to drop from him either incongruous to his subject, or offensive 
to the people. 

Pericles was not only very like Pisistratus, in the sweetness of his 
voice, and the fluency of expression, but he also much resembled him 
in the features of his face, and in his whole air and manner. To pre- 
vent, therefore, his being obnoxious to the jealousy of the people, he 
at first rather shunned affairs of government, and was more intent upon 
distinguishing himself in war and dangers. But on the death of Aris- 
tides and the banishment of Themistocles, seeing Cimon engaged in 
foreign wars, and absent from Greece, he appeared more in public, and 
devoted himself entirely to the party of the people. This he did not 
so much out of inclination, but to remove suspicions of his aspiring to 
the tyranny; and still more to raise a bulwark against the influence 

At what period did Herodotus flourish? — Who divided the chief authority at 
Athens ? — By whom was Pericles instructed ? — What was said of his eloquence 1 
— What was the public conduct of Pericles? 
9* 



02 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of Cimon, who had joined with the nobles. However, he could not 
equal the magnificence of his rival, whose immense riches enabled him 
to bestow such largesses, as appear to us, in our day, almost incredible. 
T3ut Pericles, to gain the love of the populace, divided the conquered 
lands among the citizens; distributed among them the public revenues, 
for the expenses of their games and shows, and annexed pensions to 
all public employments. These new regulations, however, were un- 
favourable to the public, as they introduced the people to luxurious 
and dissolute habits, and corrupted the purity and simplicity of their 
ancient manners. 

So great an ascendant did Pericles gain over the minds of the peo- 
ple, that Valerius Maximus makes scarcely any difference between Pi- 
sistratus and Pericles, except that the one exercised his influence by 
force of arms, and the other by the powers of his eloquence. 

Pericles' next step was, if possible, to weaken the authority of the 
tribunal of the Areopagus, of which he had not been chosen a member. 
By the assistance of E phial tes, one of his creatures, he subverted some 
of their fundamental laws and ancient customs, and took from the 
senate of the Areopagus the cognizance of most causes that used to 
be brought before it. 

Cimon being returned to Athens, the praises he bestowed on the 
Spartans, and his attempts to restore the power of the aristocracy, ex- 
cited the people against him. 

In the year B. C. 470, a most dreadful earthquake happened in 
Sparta, and the whole city, five houses only excepted, was laid in 
ruins; the mountains were shaken to their foundations, many of their 
summits being torn away ; and in several places the country was en- 
tirely swallowed up. To heighten the calamity, the Helots, or slaves, 
attempting to recover their liberty, endeavoured to murder such as had 
escaped the earthquake. They also entered into an alliance with the 
Messenians, who were at that time engaged in a war with the Spartans. 

In this extremity, the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to implore suc- 
cours. This was opposed by E phial tes, who gave it as his opinion that 
the rival of Athens ought to be left in ruins, and the pride of Sparta 
thereby humbled for ever. But Cimon, on the contrary, declared 
" That it was inconsistent to leave Greece lame of one of its legs, and 
Athens without a counterpoise." The people came into his opinion, 
and accordingly, a succour was voted. Cimon marched to the aid of 
the Lacedaemonians with 4,000 men. A second army was also sent to 
oppose the Messenians and Helots, but the Spartans, seeing the intre- 
pidity of the Athenians, began to dread their power, and declined the 
acceptance of their services. The Athenians returned full of indigna- 
tion, declaring themselves enemies to all that favoured the Lacedaemo- 
nians, and Cimon was banished by the Ostracism. 

This is the first time that the leaven of dissension between these two 
states, augmented by mutual distrust and bitterness, displayed itself 

With whom was Pericles compared ?— What public calamity happened a 
bparto ? — To whom did they apply for succour ? — What leaven of dissension hap- 
pened in Greece ? 



PUBLIC SERVICES OF CIMON. 103 

openly. And though the blow was suspended for years by hollow 
truces and treaties, yet it at length broke out in the utmost violence in 
the Peloponnesian war. 

The Athenians, perceiving the great occasion they had for Cimon, 
recalled him from banishment, in which he had spent five years. When 
he returned he stifled the sparks of war which were about to break out 
among the Greeks. He reconciled the two cities, and prevailed with 
them to conclude a truce of five years — and he led them a distance from 
home against the common enemy : thus endeavouring to inure the citi- 
zens to war, and at the same time, to enrich them. Accordingly, he 
put to sea with a fleet of 200 sail. He sent sixty to Egypt to the aid 
of Amyrteus, and he himself sailed with the rest against the island of 
Cyprus. Artabazus was at that time in those seas, with a fleet of 300 
sail ; and Megabyzus, the other general of Artaxerxes, with an army 
of 300,000 men, on the coast of Cilicia. Cimon attacked Artabazus, 
took 100 of his ships, sunk many, and chased the rest, as far as the 
coast of Phoenicia. On his return, he made a descent on Cilicia ; at- 
tacked Megabyzus, and cut to pieces a prodigious number of his troops. 
He afterwards returned to Cyprus, with this double triumph; and laid 
siege to the strong city of Citium ; intending, after the reduction of the 
island, to sail for the assistance of Egypt, and indeed he meditated 
nothing less than the subversion of the mighty empire of Persia. 

It was at this time that a rumour prevailed, that Themistocles was to 
command the Persians against him. But we have already seen that 
Themistocles, to prevent leading an enemy against his country, put an 
end to his existence. 

Artaxerxes, tired of a war in which he had sustained such great 
losses, with the advice of his council, put an end to it. Accordingly 
he sent orders to his generals, and a peace was concluded with the 
Athenians. Thus ended a war which, from the burning of Sardis by 
the Athenians, had lasted fifty-one years. While this treaty was ne- 
gotiating, Cimon died, universally regretted. He was a great politi- 
cian; an accomplished general; modest when raised to the highest 
employments and most distinguished honours, and averse to ostentation 
even in the midst of riches. 

CHAPTER 12. 

PERICLES AT THE HEIGHT OF HIS POWER. 

The nobles of Athens, to check the authority of Pericles from grow- 
ing up to monarchy, opposed to him Thucydides, who had displayed 
great wisdom on numberless occasions ; and, combating Pericles in all 
his designs, he soon restored things to an equilibrium. Pericles derived 
his greatest honour from adorning the city with magnificent edifices, 
and other works which raised the admiration of all foreigners. It is 
surprising that in so short a space so many works of architecture, 

What forces did Cimon raise, and with whom contend ? — With whom did the 
Grecians make peace? — How long had the war lasted ? 



104 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

sculpture, and painting, should have been performed. One day when 
the people were severe upon Pericles for lavishing the public money, 
Yi gilding and embellishing the city, in magnificent statues, and in 
raising temples that cost millions,* he offered to defray the whole ex- 
pense of these works, provided the public inscriptions on them should 
declare that he only had been at the charge of them. At these words, 
the people, fired with emulation, with one voice, bid him welcome to 
the public treasury. Phidias, the celebrated sculptor, presided over all 
these works. 

At length, the rupture between Pericles and Thucyd ides rose to such 
a height, that one or the other of them must necessarily be banished by 
the Ostracism. The former got the better of Thucydides ; after whose 
banishment he obtained despotic authority over the city and government 
of Athens. He disposed, at pleasure, of the public money, troops, and 
ships. He reigned singly and alone, not only over the Greek, but the 
conquered nations. Among many great qualities, Pericles possessed 
one no less rare than valuable. He had a disinclination to the receiv- 
ing of gifts ; an utter contempt of riches : and though he had long dis- 
posed of the treasures of Greece, he did not add a single drachm to his 
patrimonial inheritance. This was the true source of the supreme 
authority of Pericles, in the republic. Pericles maintained his author- 
ity for forty years, notwithstanding the opposition of Cimon, of Tol- 
mides, of Thucydides, and many others. Of these forty years, he 
maintained it fifteen without a rival, from the time of Thucydides's 
banishment ; and disposed of all things with absolute power. 

The Lacedaemonians began to grow jealous of the prosperity of the 
Athenians. Pericles, to inspire his fellow citizens with greater mag- 
nanimity, published a decree, that orders should be sent to all the 
Greeks, that they should send deputies to Athens, for debating on the 
ways and means to rebuild the temples that had been burned by the 
barbarians ; and also for establishing such a discipline in their navy, 
that all ships might sail in safety, and that the Greeks might live in 
peace one with another. Accordingly, twenty persons were chosen for 
this embassy, each of whom was upwards of fifty years old, to go to 
all the several dependencies of Greece ; namely, to the Ionians and 
Dorians of Asia, to the inhabitants of the islands as far as Lesbos and 
Rhodes, — to the Hellespont and Thrace, as far as Byzantium — to Boeotia, 
Phocis, and Peloponnesus ; and from thence by the Locrians, to pro- 
ceed to the several cities of the upper continent, as far as Acarnania 
and Ambracia; to cross Euboea to mount Veta, and the gulf of Malae; 
and to the inhabitants of Phthiotis, of Achaia, and of Thessaly. But 
these solicitations were in vain ; the cities did not send their deputies, 
owing to the opposition made to it by the Lacedaemonians ; who were 

* The temple of Minerva alone, called the Parthenon, had cost about 145,000Z. ster- 
ling. 

What proposal did Pericles make? — Who was the celebrated sculptor at this 
period ? — What were the qualities of Pericles ?— How long did he maintain his 
authority ? — For what purpose were twenty persons chosen? — What was theii' 
age, and to whom were they sent? 



PERICLES AT THE HEIGHT OF HIS POWER. 105 

sensible that Pericles's design was to have Athens acKnowledged mis- 
tress and sovereign of all Greece. 

The Lacedaemonians, having entered armed into the country where 
the temple of Delphi is situated, had dispossessed the people of Phocis 
of its superintendence, and bestowed it on the Delphians. On their 
retiring, Pericles went thither with an army and restored the Phocians. 
The Eubceans having rebelled at the same time, Pericles marched 
thither with an army, and subjected all the cities of Eubcea to the 
Athenians. The inhabitants of Megara had also taken up arms ; and 
the Lacedaemonians, headed by Philistonax their king, were on the 
frontiers of Attica. On the approach of Pericles, the Lacedaemonian 
army retired. (B. C. 446.) A truce now concluded for thirty years 
between the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians, restored things to a 
present tranquillity — but this calm was not <5f long duration. The 
Athenians six years afterwards took up arms against Samos, in favour 
of Miletus. After sustaining a nine months' siege, the Samians sur- 
rendered. 

The Peloponnesian war, which we shall soon have occasion to notice, 
was occasioned principally by the unjust desire of dominion in the 
Athenians. Pericles, foreseeing that a rupture would soon ensue be- 
tween the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, advised the former to send 
aid to the people of Corcyra (now Corfu,) which the Corinthians had 
invaded ; and to win over to their interest that island, which was so 
very formidable at sea. Another cause of rupture between the Athe- 
nians and Corinthians was Potidaea, a city and colony of Macedonia. 
In consequence of some unjust demands of the Athenians, the Potidae- 
ans declared against them; and several neighbouring cities followed 
the example. Both Athens and Corinth armed and sent forces thither : 
the two armies engaged near Potidaea, and that of the Athenians had 
the advantage. Alcibiades, who was then very young, and Socrates, 
his master, signalized themselves on this occasion ; and it was said, 
that there was not a soldier in the army who so resolutely supported 
all the toils and fatigues of the campaign as Socrates. 

Notwithstanding the loss which the Corinthians sustained in the 
battle, the inhabitants of Potidaea did not change their conduct, and 
the city was therefore besieged. The Corinthians sent a deputation to 
Lacedaemon to complain of the Athenians, as having infringed the arti- 
cles of peace. After considerable debates, the assembly declared, that 
in their opinion the Athenians were the aggressors. Accordingly the 
allies were convened, and war was resolved on by general consent. 
In order to observe the necessary formalities, ambassadors were sent to 
Athens, to complain of the violation of the treaty, and to require, 
among other things, that iEgina should be free — that the siege of Po- 
tidaea should be raised, and the decree against the Megarians should be 
repealed. Pericles opposed all their demands with the utmost force 
and eloquence, which his view of the public welfare rendered more 

What did the Lacedaemonians against the Phocians, and what steps were taken 
*>y Pericles? — What occasioned the Peloponnesian war? — What city did the 
Athenians besiege ? 



106 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

vehement and triumphant than it had ever appeared before. He ob- 
served, that were the Athenians to submit to these requisitions, the 
Lacedaemonians would then prescribe new laws, as to a people seized 
with dread ; he proposed, however, that arbitrators might be chosen, in 
order to adjust their differences. The ambassadors returned home — 
no reply was sent to Athens, and the Peloponnesian war soon com- 
menced. 

Before we proceed with this war, we will glance at the transactions 
of the Greeks in Sicily and Italy. We have already noticed that 
Xerxes, who meditated the destruction of Greece, had prevailed on the 
Carthaginians to make war on Sicily, and Hamilcar was charged with 
the expedition ; but the Carthaginians were entirely defeated by Gelon, 
who at that time had the chief authority in Syracuse. Gelon was born 
in the city of Gelas in Sicily. He had signalized himself very much 
in the wars which Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, carried on with the 
neighbouring powers. After the death of Hippocrates, Gelon possessed 
himself of the government ; and some time after he made himself 
master also of Syracuse ; he extended the limits of that territory, and 
made himself very powerful. Gelon gained a second victory over Ha- 
milcar ; and from this defeat of the Carthaginians, Sicily enjoyed a 
profound peace ; Syracuse was particularly happy in its tranquillity, 
under the auspicious government of Gelon. The whole of royalty 
that he assumed were the toils and cares of it, a zeal for the public 
welfare, and the sweet satisfaction which results from making millions 
happy by his cares. Tacitus said he found no other example, except 
in Vespasian, of any one whom the sovereignty made the better man. 
A revered old age — a name dear to all his subjects — a reputation 
equally diffuse within and without the kingdom — these were the fruits 
of that wisdom which he retained on the throne to the last period of 
his life. A splendid mausoleum, surrounded with nine towers of a 
surprising magnificence, was erected to his memory. 

After Gelon's death, the sceptre continued for nearly twelve years in 
his family : he was succeeded by Hiero, his eldest brother. Hiero has 
been charged with being avaricious, and unjust ; and acting as a tyrant 
over his people, rather than a king; but an infirm state of health in- 
duced him afterwards to seek the conversation of men of learning. 
The most famous poets of the age came to his court, as Simonides, 
Pindar, Bacchylides, and Epicharmus; and it is affirmed that their 
interesting conversation greatly contributed to soften the cruel and 
savage disposition of Hiero. On one occasion the prince asked Simo- 
nides his opinion with regard to the nature and attributes of the Deity 
The latter desired one day's time to consider it; the next day he asked 
two, and went on increasing in the same proportion. The prince 
pressing him to give his reasons for these delays, he confessed that the 
subject was above his comprehension, and that the more he reflected, 
the more obscure it appeared to him. Hiero died after having reigned 
eleven years, and was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus, who treat- 

What is said of Xerxes? — What of Gelon? — What is the character of Hiero 
— What was the reply of Simonides ? 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 107 

ed his subjects with a cruelty that was insupportable. On which ac- 
count he was besieged even in Syracuse ; and, after a feeble resistance, 
he withdrew into banishment among the Locrians, when he had reigned 
but one year. 

CHAPTER 13. 
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

The first act of hostility in the Peloponnesian war was committed 
by the Thebans, who besieged Plataea, a city of Boeotia in alliance 
with Athens. The truce being evidently broken, both sides prepared 
for war, and almost every part of Greece was in motion. The majority 
were for the Lacedaemonians, as being the deliverers of Greece; be- 
cause Athens, by its pride and severity, had incurred their hatred ; and 
they were apprehensive of becoming its dependents. The confederates 
of the Athenians were the people of Chios, Lesbos, Plataea, the Mes- 
senians of Naupactes ; the greatest part of the Acarnanians, Corcyrans, 
Cephalonians, and Zacynthians ; besides the tributary countries, as 
maritime Caria, Doria, Ionia, the Hellespont, and the cities of Thrace 
(Chalcis and Potidaea excepted) ; all the islands between Crete and 
Peloponnesus eastward, and the Cyclades (Melos andThera excepted). 

The forces of the Lacedaemonians being ready, two-thirds marched 
to the isthmus of Corinth, and the rest were left to guard the Pelopon- 
nesus. Achidamus, king of Sparta, who commanded the army, still 
zealous for the tranquillity of Greece, sent a Spartan to Athens, to pre- 
vail, if possible, with the Athenians to lay aside their designs; other- 
wise his army would soon march into Attica. But the Athenians 
would not suffer him to enter their city. 

The Athenians, by the advice of Pericles, as they had not forces suf- 
ficient to oppose the enemy on land, their chief strength consisting of 
300 galleys, immediately removed with their wives, children, movea- 
bles, and all their effects from the surrounding country, and took shelter 
within the city ; intending to shut themselves up without hazarding a 
battle. In the mean time the Lacedaemonians entered Attica, and laid 
waste, with dreadful havock, the whole country round Athens ; but 
finding the Athenians were determined not to leave the city, and having 
learned also that the Athenian fleet had carried fire and sword into the 
Lacedaemonian territories, they raised their camp, returned to Pelopon- 
nesus, and retired to their separate homes. 

In the beginning of the second campaign, (B. C. 430,) the Lace- 
daemonians made another incursion into Attica, and laid it waste; but 
the plague made a greater devastation in Athens than had ever been be- 
fore known. Hippocrates was actively employed in visiting the sick 
but the pestilence baffled the utmost effort of art ; and the skill of the 
physicians was a feeble help to those that were infected. The king of 
Persia had invited Hippocrates to his court, with the most advanta- 
geous offers ; but all the glitters of Persian riches and dignities could 

What character is given of the Athenians ? — How were the forces of the La> 
cedceraonians employed ? — What ste.^s were taken by the Athenians ? 



108 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

not bribe this great physician. He, therefore, in a short reply, declin 
ed the invitation, saying, " that he owed all his cares to his fellow 
citizens and countrymen." The Athenians were struck with the deep- 
est sense of gratitude for this generous care of Hippocrates, and or- 
dained, by a public decree, that he should be presented with a crown 
of gold of the value of 1,000 statens. (£358. 6s. 8d.) _ 

In the mean time the enemy, having again marched into Attica, laid 
waste the whole country. Pericles, adhering to the maxim he had 
established, not to expose the safety of the state to the hazard of a 
battle, would not suffer his troops to sally out of the city ; however, 
before the enemy left the plains, he sailed to Peloponnesus with 100 
galleys, in order to hasten their retreat, by his making so powerful a 
diversion, and after having made as dreadful havoc as he had done 
the year preceding, he returned into the city. 

The campaign being thus ended, the Athenians, who saw their 
country depopulated by war and pestilence, began to despond and mur- 
mur against Pericles. They also sent deputies to Lacedaemon to sue 
for peace ; but the ambassadors returned without being able to obtain 
any terms. Pericles was, therefore, deprived of his command, and a 
large fine was imposed on him ; but as fickleness and inconstancy 
were the prevailing characters of the Athenians, his public disgrace was 
not to be lasting; the anger of the people was soon appeased, and they 
wished to see him again in their assemblies. But Pericles now expe- 
rienced domestic troubles. The plague had carried off Xanthippus, 
his son, his sister, and many of his relations. 

About the end of the second campaign, ambassadors had been sent 
from Lacedaemon, to solicit the king of Persia's alliance and assistance, 
to enable them to enlarge their fleet. This reflected great ignominy on 
Sparta, and sullied their former glorious actions at Thermopylae, in 
opposing Persia. The ambassadors, however, were intercepted and 
sent to Athens, where they suffered death. Potidaea had now been 
besieged almost three years, by the Athenians, and being reduced, at 
length, to the utmost extremity, they surrendered. 

Soon after this event, Pericles was infected with the pestilence, and 
near his end. The principal citizens, and such of his friends as had 
not forsaken him, were discoursing together in his bed-chamber about 
his distinguished merit, and the trophies he had won by his many vic- 
tories ; not imagining that Pericles overheard them. Pericles suddenly 
broke silence, and expressed his surprise that while they extolled him 
for actions common to other public men, and in which fortune has so 
great a share, they should forget the most glorious circumstance in his 
life ; which was, that he had never caused a single citizen to put on 
mourning. Pericles united most of the qualities that constitute the 
great man. During forty years he governed the Athenians ; and what 

What was the reply of Hippocrates to the Persian king, and what reward did 
the Athenians confer on him ? — What occurred between the Spartans and Athe- 
nians ? — What disgrace and troubles awaited Pericles ? — What steps were taken 
by Lacedaemon ? — What was the fate of the ambassadors? — Relate the inter- 
View between Pericles and his friends. 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 109 

is more surprising-, he gained this great ascendency merely by persua- 
sion ; without employing mean artifices or force. 

The most memorable transaction of the following years was the 
famous siege of Platsea, by the Lacedaemonians, — on account of the 
vigorous efforts of both parties ; but especially for the glorious resist- 
ance made by the besieged, and for their bold and industrious strata- 
gems, by which numbers got out of the city and escaped the fury of the 
enemy. 

The next, summer, the fourth year of the war, the people of Lesbos 
resolved to break their alliance with the Athenians. The affliction of 
the Athenians was greatly increased, when the news was brought of 
the revolt of so considerable an island ; and notwithstanding their 
efforts to retain it, the Lesbians entered into the alliance of Peloponne- 
sus ; and brought two-thirds of their forces in the gulf of Corinth, 
intending to invade Attica both by sea and land. The Athenians, to 
undeceive their enemies, who supposed they were very weak, put to 
sea with a fleet of 100 sail, and after having shown themselves before 
the Isthmus of Corinth, they made descents, into whatever parts of 
Peloponnesus they pleased. The world had never seen, in those days, 
it has been said, a finer fleet. The Athenians guarded their own coun- 
try and the coasts of Euboea and Salamis, with a fleet of 100 ships. 
They cruised round Peloponnesus with another fleet of the like number 
of vessels, without including their fleet before Lesbos and other places. 
The whole amounted to 250 galleys. But the expenses of these pow- 
erful armaments helped materially to exhaust their treasury. 

CHAPTER 14. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED — AFFAIRS OF PERSIA — 
ALCIBIADES. 

The Lacedaemonians, greatly surprised at so formidable a fleet, 
returned with the utmost expedition to their own country. A thousand 
heavy-armed troops had been sent to Mitylene, by whose assistance 
the city was taken. Many of the factious Mitylenians were put to 
death, and the city dismantled. The cities which belonged to the 
Mitylenians on the coast of Asia, were also subjected to the Athenians. 

In the sixth year of the war of Peloponnesus, the plague broke out 
again at Athens, and swept off great numbers. But the Lacedaemoni- 
ans made yearly incursions into Attica, and the Athenians into Pelo- 
ponnesus. In the seventh year of the war, the Athenians, headed by 
Demosthenes, had taken Pylo, a small city on the west coast, and for- 
tified it. The Lacedaemonians attempted its recovery, and Brasidas, 
one of their leaders, signalized himself here by one of the most extra- 
ordinary acts of bravery. A battle was fought at sea, in which the 
Athenians were victorious ; a suspension of arms was the consequence, 
and the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to sue for peace. The Atheni- 



What display did the Athenians rrwke of their fleet ? — Did the Athenians grant 
the peace solicited ? 
10 



110 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

ans had now a happy opportunity for terminating the war, by a peace, 
which would have been as glorious to them, as advantageous to all 
Greece. But Cleon, their present leader, prevented its taking effect ; 
nor would the Athenians restore the Peloponnesians the ships held 
during the suspension. A haughty carriage in success, and want of 
faith in the observance of treaties, never fail to involve the aggressors 
in calamities. 

In the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, Artaxerxes sent to the 
Lacedaemonians, Artaphernes, an ambassador, with a letter, written in 
the Assyrian language, acknowledging having received many embassies 
from them ; but the purport of them differed so widely, that he knew 
not what they requested : and that he had sent a Persian, desiring, if 
they had any proposal to make, they would send a confidential person 
back with him. This minister landed in Thrace, and was sent by an 
admiral of the Athenian fleet to Athens, where he was treated with the 
utmost respect, and, as soon as the season would permit, he was sent 
back at the public expense ; and some of the citizens were appointed 
to attend him to the Persian court. Upon landing at Ephesus, they 
were informed that Artaxerxes was dead ; upon which the Athenian 
ambassadors thinking it not advisable to proceed further, and taking 
leave of Artaphernes, returned to their own country. 

Artaxerxes died about the beginning of the 49th year of his reign, 
(B. C. 425,) and Xerxes, who succeeded him, was his only legitimate 
son. Sogdianus, a natural son, in concert with Pharnacias, one of 
Xerxes' eunuchs, came insidiously, one festival day, to the new king, 
who, after drinking to excess, had retired to his chamber, and killed 
him, after he had reigned forty-five days. Sogdianus was declared 
king in his stead. He was scarcely on the throne, when he put to 
death Bagorazus, one of his father's eunuchs. By these two murders, 
he became the horror both of the army and the nobility. He next sent 
for Ochus, who, suspecting the design, delayed coming, till he could 
advance at the head of a strong army. A great number of the nobility, 
and several governors of the provinces joined in his cause, put the tiara 
on Ochus's head, and proclaimed him king. Sogdianus made but an 
ill-conducted and cowardly defence to retain the crown ; and falling 
into Ochus's hands he was thrown into ashes, and died a cruel death. * 

Ochus, now settled in the empire, changed his name from Ochus to 
that of Darius ; and to distinguish him, historians add the epithet 
No0oj, (Nothos,) signifying bastard. He reigned nineteen years. 

Arsites, the third brother, meditated supplanting Ochus (hereafter 
to be called Darius ;) but both himself and Artyphius, his general, 
were defeated, and being made prisoners, were smothered in ashes. 
Another commotion was occasioned by the rebellion of Pisuthenes, go- 

* This was a kind of punishment peculiar to the Persians, and exercised only on great 
criminals. One of the largest towers was filled to a certain height with ashes. The 
criminal was thrown headlong into them. After which the ashes were by a wheel 
turned perpetually round him till he was suffocated. 



What message was received from Artaxerxes ? — When did the Persian monarch 
die ? — How long did he reign, and who succeeded ? — Mention the plots formed 
against Darius. 



PERSIAN AFFAIRS. Ill 

vernor of Lydia. But he being subdued and made prisoner, met his 
death, by being sentenced to the same fate as the former rebels. The 
son of Pisuthenes, Amorges, still rebelling, was at length delivered up 
to suffering and death. Darius was again involved in fresh troubles, 
by one of his eunuchs, who, intoxicated by the supreme authority which 
the favour of his sovereign gave him, resolved to make himself king. 
However, his plot being discovered, he was delivered up to Parysatis, 
the queen, who put him to an ignominious death. 

But the greatest revolt in the reign of Darius was that of the Egyp- 
tians ; who, weary of the Persian government, fled to Amyrtaeus, of 
Sais ; when he came out of the fens, where he had defended himself 
from the suppression of the revolt of Inarus. The Persians were driven 
out, and Amyrtaeus was proclaimed king of Egypt, where he reigned 
six years. News having been brought to the king of Persia that Amyr- 
taeus was preparing to pursue them to Phoenicia, he recalled the fleet 
which he had promised to the Lacedaemonians, to employ it in the 
defence of his own dominions. 

While Darius was carrying on the war in Egypt, the Medes rebel- 
led ; they were, however, defeated, and reduced to their allegiance by 
force of arms ; and to punish them for this revolt, their yoke, till then 
easy, was made heavier. 

Darius afterwards gave Cyrus, the youngest of his sons, the su- 
preme command of all the provinces of Asia Minor, by which the pro- 
vincial governors in that part of the empire (B. C.407,) came under his 
jurisdiction. 

The three or four campaigns, which followed the reduction of the 
small island of Sphacteria, were distinguished by few considerable 
events. The Athenians, under Nicias, took the island of Cythera, near 
the southern coast of Lacedaemonia, and from thence they infested the 
whole country. Brasidas, on the other side, marched towards Thrace, 
with a view to divide the Athenian forces. He also marched after- 
wards towards Amphipolis, an Athenian colony on the river Strymon, 
and possessed it. 

About the ninth year of the Grecian war, the losses and advantages 
on both sides being pretty equal, the nations began to grow weary of 
the contest. A truce for a year was, therefore, concluded between the 
Athenians and Lacedaemonians, in the hope that it would be followed 
by a general peace. But there were two men, Cimon of Athens, and 
Brasidas of Sparta, who opposed the tranquillity of Greece, and raised, 
but in a very different way, an invincible obstacle to its peace. The 
Athenian, because the war screened his vices and malversations; the 
Spartan, because it added new lustre to his virtues. But their death, 
which happened about the same time, made way for a new accommo- 
dation. 

The Athenians had appointed Cleon to command the troops, which 
were to oppose Brasidas, and also to reduce those cities which 
had revolted from their allegiance ; among which Amphipolis claimed 

And the revolt both of the Egyptians and Medes. — What leading men were 
opposed to peace, and by what motives were they influenced ? 



112 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

their first solicitude, and Cleon encamped before it, intending to invest 
the place on all sides, and afterwards take it by storm. In the moment 
of Cleon's temerity, Brasidas made a sally on the Athenians, and be- 
fore the close of the engagement, both the commanders fell, and the 
city remained in its alliance with the Lacedaemonians. 

After this engagement, both nations seemed inclined to an accommo- 
dation, and particularly their chiefs, namely, Phlistonax, king of Lace- 
daemonia, and Nicias, general of the Athenians. Both states began by 
renewing a suspension of arms for twelve months ; and after a whole 
winter had been spent in conference and interviews, a peace was con- 
cluded (B. C. 421,) for fifty years. But Alcibiades, who had Socrates for 
his tutor, began now to advance himself in the state, and to appear in 
the public assemblies. He was not born for repose, and used his ut- 
most endeavours to infringe the peace, and to break with the Spartans. 

Passing over several minor events, we hasten to the expedition of the 
Athenians into Sicily, to which they were excited by Alcibiades, in the 
sixteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. Alcibiades had gained a sur- 
prising ascendency over the minds of the people, though they knew 
that his great qualities were united with still greater vices. Timon, 
the man-hater, meeting him one day as he was coming out of the as- 
sembly, told him that " his advancement would be the ruin of the Athe- 
nians." The war of Sicily will show that Timon was not mistaken. 

CHAPTER 15. 
UNFORTUNATE EXPEDITION TO SICILY. 

The people of Egesta, in Sicily, (B. C.416,) at this juncture, im- 
plored the aid of the Athenians against the inhabitants of Selinunta, 
who were assisted by the Syracusans. The aid was granted, and Alci- 
biades, Nicias, and Lamachus, were appointed to the command of the 
fleet, with full powers, not only to succour Egesta, but also to regu- 
late the affairs of Sicily. When the ships were loaded, and the troops 
got on board, the trumpet sounded, and solemn prayers were offered up 
for the success of the expedition ; gold and silver cups were filled 
everywhere with wine, and the accustomed libations were poured out. 
And now, the hymn being sung, and the ceremony ended, the ships 
sailed first to iEgina, and from thence to Corey ra, where the army of 
the allies was assembling with the rest of the fleet. When they arrived 
in Sicily, Alcibiades took Catana by surprise. This was the first and 
last exploit performed by him in this expedition; he being immediately 
recalled by the Athenians, to be tried, with some others, for an offence 
against the sacred mysteries.* 

Alcibiades obeyed the order of the captain, who was commissioned 

♦The crime was that of wantonly mimicking the ceremonies and mysteries of Ceres 
find Proserpine ; Alcibiades, representing the high priest, at their head. 

What befel the Spartan and Athenian commanders ? — Who were now for peace ? 

Who opposed it? — What said Timon, the man-hater, to Alcibiades? — Who 
implored the Athenians' aid ? — What ceremonies took place before the departure 
of the ships? — For what crime was Alcibiades recalled ? 



EXPEDITION TO SICILY. 113 

to recall him from Sicily ; but the instant he had arrived at Thurium, 
he got on shore and disappeared, and the captain was under the morti- 
fying necessity of returning to Athens, without his prisoner. Alcibi- 
ades was sentenced to die for his contumacy ; his estates were confis- 
cated, and the priests and priestesses were ordered to curse him. Among 
the latter was one Theano, who alone had the courage to oppose the 
decree; saying, "that she had been appointed priestess, not to curse, 
but to bless ♦" 

After the departure of Alcibiades, Nicias possessed the chief au- 
thority. As Alcibiades despaired of ever being recalled home, he sent 
to the Spartans, desiring leave to reside among them, under their guard 
and protection. He was received by them with open arms, and soon 
after his arrival in their city, he gained the esteem of all the inhabitants 
by his engaging urbanity. 

Nicias, after some engagements, besieged Syracuse, a city of vast 
extent, on the eastern coast of Sicily, in the eighteenth year of the 
war. The Sicilians, in their distress, sent to Corinth, their parent 
state, for succours ; but none arriving, after having held out a long 
time, they were resolving to capitulate, and a council was held to settle 
the articles of capitulation to the Athenian forces. It was at this criti- 
cal juncture, that an officer named Gylippus, arrived from Corinth with 
a considerable force, and completely changed the face of affairs. The 
Athenian generals, though often defeated on land, hazarded a sea fight, 
and were vanquished. After still holding out on land to the utmost 
extremity, they surrendered. On the next day a council was held to 
deliberate on the fate of the prisoners ; the cruel sentence was enforced, 
that the two Athenian generals should be first scourged with rods, and 
afterwards be put to death. Thus, the finest fleet that ever sailed from 
Athens, together with an army of 40,000 men, with their generals, lost 
life and liberty. The news of this defeat reaching Athens, they vented 
their griefs against the orators and the soothsayers. Never had they 
been reduced to so deplorable a condition. Without horse or foot — 
without money, galleys, or mariners, they were apprehensive every 
moment that the enemy, elated with so great a victory, would invade 
Athens by sea and land, with all the forces of Peloponnesus. This 
defeat of the Athenian army was followed by the taking of Athens ; of 
which the ancient form of government was changed by Lysander. 

An alteration took place in the constitution of Athens, by the influ- 
ence of Pisander. Alcibiades was recalled from exile, and afterwards 
appointed Generalissimo. In several contests he was so successful as 
to humble the pride of Sparta. Byzantium, and several other cities, 
submitted to the Athenians. (B. C. 407.) Alcibiades, who passion- 
ately desired to see his country again, after so many victories over their 
enemies, now set out for Athens. The sides of his ships were covered 
with bucklers, and all sorts of spoils, with their ensigns and ornaments, 
in form of trophies. The people came out in a body to welcome and 
congratulate him with incredible shouts of joy. 

What was enjoined upon the priests and priestesses? — What fate awaited the 
Athenian generals ? — ; To what state were the Athenians reduced ? — What change 
did Pisander effect ? — Relate Alcibiades' victories, and his visit to Athens. 

10* 



114 HISTORY OF CREECE. 

Alcibiades soon called an assembly of the people. The Athenians, 
transported with hearing him speak, decreed him crowns of gold, 
appointed him general by sea and land, with unlimited power, and 
restored him all his fortune. He set sail accordingly with 200 ships, 
and steered for the island of Andros, which had revolted. 

The Lacedaemonians, alarmed at the return and success of Alcibi- 
ades, thought it needful to oppose him with an able general ; and they 
gave Lysander the command of the fleet, who sailed for Ephesus. But 
such was the fame of Alcibiades, never having been overthrown in any 
battle, either by sea or land, that Lysander dared not encounter him. 
Alcibiades, however, had occasion to go into Phocsea and Ionia, to raise 
money for the payment of his troops ; and while absent, Antiochus, to 
brave the Spartan, entered the port of Ephesus with two galleys. 
Lysander, enraged at the insult, pursued him, — a general engagement 
was the result, and Lysander gained the victory. 

Thrasybulus left the camp, and went to Athens to accuse Alcibiades 
of neglecting his fleet, and of his numerous debaucheries. The Athe- 
nians gave credit to these impeachments. They had vainly supposed 
that nothing Alcibiades desired to do was impossible for him ; and they 
made it a sufficient crime in him, that the rapidity of his conquest did 
not equal their expectations. Alcibiades was deposed, and ten generals 
were nominated in his stead. He retired to some castles he had in the 
Thracian Chersonesus. 

About this time died Phlistonax, one of the kings of Lacedsemonia ; 
and was succeeded by Pausanias, who reigned fourteen years. Calli- 
cratides was now appointed to succeed Lysander ; and after having 
gained several victories over the Athenians, he pursued Cimon, one of 
their generals, into the port of Mitylene, and kept him blocked up. 
But Cimon, receiving large supplies from Athens, a battle ensued at 
Arginusse, in which Callicratides lost his life, and the Lacedsemonians 
gave way, and retired in great disorder. 

Plutarch equals Callicratides, the Lacedaemonian general, for his 
justice, valour, and magnanimity, with all who had ever rendered them- 
selves most worthy of admiration among the Greeks : and Cicero, before 
the time of Plutarch, had passed nearly the same opinion of him. 

In the battle of Arginusae, the Athenian generals ordered some of the 
officers to return with about fifty galleys, to take up the wrecks and 
dead bodies, in order to their interment : for the ancients held it a great 
crime not to provide sepulture for the dead. The officers excused them- 
selves by alleging the violence of the storm, and appealed for the truth 
of what they said to the pilots. But it was decreed that the delinquent 
officers should be punished with death, their estates confiscated, and 
the tenth part thereof consecrated to the Goddess Minerva. Some 
senators at first opposed this decree as unjust and contrary to the laws ; 
but Socrates, the celebrated philosopher, was the only one who per 

How came the Spartans to gain the victory? — What generals succeeded Alci 
hiades? — What is said of Phlistonax, Pausanias, Cimon, &c.? — With whom does 
Plutarch equal Callicratides ? — What cruelties were exercised towards the officers., 
and was it not opposed by Socrates ? 



THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 115 

sisted firmly in his opposition. Six of the officers were scarcely exe- 
cuted, when the people opened their eyes, and perceived all the horrors 
of that sentence ; but their repentance could not recall the dead to life. 
Callixenes, the orator who spoke against them, was first imprisoned ; 
and, after making his escape, he ended his days universally detested 
and abhorred. 

CHAPTER 16. 
THE THIRTY TYRANTS — THRASYBULUS. 

After the defeat at Arginussc, the affairs of the Peloponnesians 
declining, the allies sent an embassy to Sparta, to request that the com- 
mand should be again given to Lysander. The request was complied 
with. Lysander sailed towards the Hellespont, and laid siege to Lamp- 
sacus, which he carried by storm. The Athenians followed him close, 
and halted at JEgospotamus, over against the enemy at Lampsacus. 
The Hellespont is not above 2,000 paces broad in that place. The two 
armies, seeing themselves so near each other, expected to come to an 
immediate engagement. But Lysander manoeuvred for some days, till 
he found the enemy entirely off his guard, and then made an easy and 
a complete conquest. Thus Lysander terminated a war in the space 
of an hour, which had already lasted twenty-seven years. Three thou- 
sand prisoners taken in this battle were condemned to die. 

When the news of this entire defeat arrived at Athens, the city was 
in universal consternation. Nothing was heard but cries of sorrow and 
despair. The two kings of Sparta, Agis and Pausanias, advanced with 
all their troops towards Athens ; and Lysander soon arrived at the 
Piraeus with his fleet, and shut up the port. The Athenians, besieged 
both by land and sea, and without provisions, or hopes of relief, sent 
deputies to Agis, to propose a treaty with Sparta. After much delay, 
a peace, on these conditions, was concluded, " That the fortifications 
of the Piraeus, with the long wall that joined it, should be demolished ; 
that the Athenians should deliver up all their galleys, twelve only ex- 
cepted ; that they should abandon all the cities they had seized, and 
content themselves with their own lands and country ; and that they 
should make a league offensive and defensive with the Lacedaemoniana" 

Lysander caused the wall to be demolished to the sound of flutes and 
trumpets, and with all the exterior marks of rejoicing, as if all Greece 
had that day regained its liberty ; and he then established thirty archons, 
or rather tyrants, over the city. 

It was about the end of the Peloponnesian war, that Darius Nothos, 
king of Persia, died, after a reign of nineteen years. Cyrus had ar- 
rived at the court before his death, and Parysatis, his mother, whose 
idol he was, not contented with having made his peace, pressed the old 
king to declare him his successor. But Darius did not carry his com- 
plaisance for her so far ; he gave the crown to Arsaces, his eldest son, 

What decisive battle was fought at the Hellespont ? — What disasters happened 
in consequence to Athens? — What Persian king died, and who attempted to suc- 
ceed ? 



116 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

by Parysatis, and bequeathed to Cyrus only the provinces he had al- 
ready. (B.C. 404.) 

Arsaces, upon ascending the throne, assumed the name of Artaxerxes, 
to whom the Greeks gave the surname of Mnemon, from his prodigious 
memory. Cyrus, having resolved to dethrone his brother, employed 
Clearchus, the Lacedaemonian general, with a body of Grecian troops, 
under pretence of a war which that Spartan was to carry into Thrace. 

The Council of Thirty, established at Athens by Lysander, committed 
the most execrable cruelties, upon pretence of restraining the multitude 
within the bounds of their duty. They had caused guards to be as- 
signed them — they armed 3,000 citizens for their service, and at the 
same time disarmed the rest. The whole city was in the utmost terror 
and dismay. Whoever opposed their oppressions, became their vic- 
tims. Riches were a crime that never failed to draw a sentence upon 
their owners ; always followed with death and the confiscation of their 
estates, which the thirty tyrants divided among themselves. Nothing 
passed through the city but imprisonments and murders. Every one 
trembled for himself or his friends. The Athenians seemed to have 
lost not only their valour, but their speech, lest their words should be 
construed into a crime. 

Socrates alone remained intrepid, and set all men an example of 
courage and resolution. Many of the citizens, of any consideration in 
Athens, quitted a place reduced to such slavery. At the head of these 
was Thrasybulus, a person of extraordinary merit, who beheld with 
the most lively affection the miseries of his country. Lysias, an orator 
of Syracuse, who had been banished by the thirty, raised 500 soldiers 
at his own expense, and sent them to the aid of the Athenians, and 
Thrasybulus with these and the force he could raise, took the small fort 
of Phyla, and then marched to the Piraeus, of which he made himself 
master ; and the tyrants were overthrown and expelled. Ten persons 
were substituted in their stead, whose conduct proved no better than 
theirs. 

It is a matter of surprise, that so general and so uniform a conspiracy 
against the public good, should always actuate the several bodies in the 
administration of this government. This we have seen in the four 
hundred, formerly chosen by Athens ; again in the thirty, and now in 
the ten ; and what augments our wonder is, that this passion for ty- 
ranny should possess so immediately republicans, born in the bosom 
of liberty. There must be in the mind of man a strong propensity to 
imperious rule, and the subjection of his equals. The lust of power 
seems in some to extirpate the social affections. 

The tyrants, having taken up arms to re-instate themselves in the 
government, and being present at a parley for that purpose, were all put 
to the sword, and left Athens in full possession of its liberty. Thra- 
sybulus at this time proposed the celebrated amnesty, by which the 
citizens engaged upon oath, that all past transactions should be buried 

How did the Council of Thirty behave at Athens ? — What did Socrates, Thra 
sybulus, and Lysias? — What reflections have been drawn from it? — Wherein 
consisted the wisdom of Thrasybulus ? 



EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 117 

in oblivion. The government was re-established upon its ancient foot- 
ing ; the laws restored to their pristine vigour, and magistrates elected 
with the usual forms. The wisdom and moderation of Thrasybulus, 
so salutary, after a long continuance of domestic troubles, stand here 
conspicuous. It is one of the finest events in ancient history ; worthy 
the Athenian lenity and benevolence ; and may serve as a model of 
good government to succeeding ages. 

Lysander, after his victories which terminated the Peloponnesian 
war, was carried away by vanity and presumption. He permitted the 
Grecian cities to dedicate altars to him, to offer sacrifices, and chant 
hymns and canticles in honour of him. He governed cities with ty- 
rannic power, nor could those he hated escape his vengeance. The 
number he caused to be massacred is incredible. Pharnabasus, the 
satrap of Persia, weary of Lysander's repeated acts of injustice, sent 
ambassadors to Sparta, to complain of the wrongs he had received from 
that general, and the Ephori recalled him. Lysander was at that time 
in the Hellespont. The letter to the Ephori threw him into great con- 
sternation. He returned to Sparta, and was divested of his power. 

CHAPTER 17. 
EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 

Young Cyrus, son of Darius Nothos and Parysatis, saw with pain 
his elder brother Artaxerxes on the throne ; and he attempted to de- 
prive him of his crown and life together. The tears and entreaties of 
Parysatis obtained his pardon from Artaxerxes, who dismissed him to 
his government in Asia Minor. Cyrus was still bent on dethroning 
him, and for this purpose carried himself courteously, and gained the 
hearts of those who were under his jurisdiction, that they might aid 
his design. He was solicitous also to raise a body of Grecian troops, 
and Clearchus the Spartan, having retired to his court, after being 
banished from Sparta, was joined by a body of about 13,000 Grecians, 
the flower and chief force of his army — besides these, Cyrus had 
about 100,000 Asiatics, under Ariaeus the Persian general. 

Artaxerxes assembled a numerous army to receive his brother. 
The battle was fought at Cunaxa, about twenty-five leagues from 
Babylon. The forces of the king of Persia amounted to 1,200,000, 
under four generals, without including 4,000 horse, which never quitted 
the king's person. In the royal army were also 260 chariots armed 
with scythes, in that of Cyrus about thirty of such chariots. When 
the armies approached each other within four or five hundred paces, 
the Greeks began to sing the hymn of battle, and then sprung upon the 
king's army with such impetuosity, that they did not wait the charge, 
but fled with precipitation, except Tisaphernes who stood his ground 
with a small portion of his troops. 

Supposing the victory gained, Cyrus was proclaimed king by those 

Was not Lysander intoxicated by his victories ? — What was the attempt of 
young Cyrus? — How did the Greeks commence the battle ? 



118 HISTORY OP GREECE. 

around him : but he soon perceived that Artaxerxes was wheeling his 
right to attack him in flank, and marched directly against him with his 
GOO horse, and beholding his brother, he made for him with a head- 
long impetuosity. The battle then became, in some measure, a single 
combat, between Artaxerxes and Cyrus; and after a doubtful conflict 
Cyrus fell ; but whether by a flight of darts, which was aimed at him 
from all sides, or from the king's javelin, is not known. The greatest 
persons then attendant on Cyrus, were all killed around him. 

The Greeks on their side, and Artaxerxes on his, not knowing what 
had passed elsewhere, believed, each of them, that they had gained the 
victory : the former because they had put the enemy to flight and pursu- 
ed them, and the king because he had killed his brother, and plundered 
his camp. Nor was it till the next day, that the Greeks were certain 
of Cyrus's death, when Persian heralds arrived from the king to sum- 
mon them to deliver up their arms. They haughtily replied they 
would sooner die than part with them, and that they would sell their 
lives and liberties together. 

The generals of the Greeks, after a conference with Tisaphernes 
and the queen's brother, were assured of not finding any obstacle to 
their return to Greece; but in an interview which happened soon after, 
five of them, namely, Clearchus, Menon, Proxenes, Agias and Socrates, 
on entering the tent of Tisaphernes, were seized, and sent to the king, 
who ordered their heads to be struck off; and their attendants, twenty 
captains, and about 200 soldiers, were put to the sword. 

CHAPTER 18. 
RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 

Their generals having been thus seized and their attendants massa 
cred, the Grecian army was in the highest consternation. They were 
five or six hundred leagues from Greece, surrounded with great rivers 
and hostile nations, without any supplies of provision. They therefore 
chose generals and captains to supply the place of 'those that had been 
so treacherously murdered, and prepared to commence their retreat. As 
they were occasionally harassed by detachments sent against them, 
they began their march in the form of a hollow square, with the bag- 
gage in the centre. The first day, they were much annoyed by the horse 
and slingers sent against them. To oppose these, 200 men were chosen 
out of the Rhodians in the army, whom they armed with slings, and 
augmented their pay for their encouragement. They could throw as far 
again as the Persians ; because they discharged balls of lead, and the 
others made use of large flints. They mounted also a squadron of 
fifty men upon the horses, by which a second detachment of the enemy 
was very severely handled. 

After some days' march, Tisaphernes appeared with all his forces, 

What was the result of the conflict between Artaxerxes and Cyrus ? — What was 
the haughty reply of the Greeks ? — How were the Greeks treated by Tisaphernes ? 
— In what way did they commence their march ? 



RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 119 

narassing the Greeks, who still kept moving on till they arrived at 
the river Tigris ; but as its depth would not allow them to pass at that 
place without boats, they were obliged to continue the march over the 
Carducian Mountains. They were told by some peasants that on en- 
tering Armenia they might cross the Tigris at its source, and not far 
from it the Euphrates also. To gain these defiles before the enemy 
could arrive, they set forward in the night. A council of war being soon 
after held, it was judged proper to leave behind them all the beasts of 
burden not absolutely needful, together with all the slaves lately taken. 
The passing of the mountains, which took up seven days, fatigued the 
troops extremely, but at length they arrived at villages, where they 
found provisions in abundance, and where they rested some days to re- 
cover the severe fatigues the army had suffered. 

They found themselves soon after exposed to new dangers. Almost 
at the foot of the mountains they came to a river 200 feet broad, called 
Centrites, which stopped their march ; and they had to defend them- 
selves against the enemy, who pursued them in the rear, and the Arme- 
nians, the soldiers of the country, who guarded the opposite sides of 
the river. By good fortune they afterwards discovered a place not so 
deep, — but it required abundance of address and valour to keep off the 
enemy on both sides. The army, however, passed the river without 
much loss. 

They afterwards marched with less interruption, passed near the 
source of the Tigris, and arrived at the beautiful little river, Teleboa, 
in Western Armenia, which has many villages on its banks. Tiribases, 
the governor, a satrap much beloved by the king, permitted the army 
to pass, and the soldiers to purchase what they wanted, provided they 
committed no ravages. He kept, however, as a check, a flying camp, 
at a small distance from the army. A fall of snow which occurred 
soon after gave the troops some inconvenience. After some days' march 
through deserts, they passed the Euphrates near its source ; not having 
the water above their middles. They afterwards suffered extremely 
from a north wind which blew in their faces. In order to appease it, 
they sacrificed to it, according to the custom of their religion ; upon 
which it seemed to abate. 

They marched on in snow five or six feet deep, which killed several 
servants and beasts of burden, besides thirty soldiers. They made fires 
during the night, for they found plenty of wood. Continuing their 
march the next day through the snow, many, from excess of hunger, 
were affected with languor and fainting ; and some were found lying 
on the ground through excessive weakness ; but when refreshed and 
recovered, they continued their march. 

The enemy still pursued them : of whom many, overtaken by the 
night, remained on the way without fire or provisions ; so that several 
died of their hardships ; and the enemy that followed took some bag 

What river did they attempt to cross, and what mountains ? — With what new 
enemies did they encounter ? — What refreshments did they obtain ? — What did 
they do to appease the severity of the North wind ? — What loss did they sustain 
in the snow ? 



120 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

gage. A few soldiers also were left behind that had lost their eyes, 
and others their toes by the snow. Against the first evil, something 
black was ordered to be worn before the eyes ; and against the other, 
the legs were to be kept always in motion, and the feet to be bathed at 
night. Arriving in a more commodious place, they dispersed them- 
selves into the neighbouring villages, to recover and repose after their 
fatigues. The houses were mostly built under ground, with an open 
ing at top, through which the descent was by a ladder. Here they 
were taught to fasten a kind of small hurdles to their feet, to prevent 
sinking in the snow. The army, after resting seven days in these vil- 
lages, pursued their route. 

After a march of seven days more, they arrived at the river Araxes 
or Phasus. A few days after they discovered the Phasians, the Cha- 
lybes, and the Taochians, who kept the passes of the mountains to 
prevent their descent ; but at length the enemy was put to flight and 
the passes cleared. They crossed the country of the Chalybes, who 
are the most valiant of all the barbarians of those parts. Having 
marched twelve or fifteen days longer, they arrived at a very high 
mountain called Tecqua, from whence they descried the sea. The 
view of it caused great delight, and they cried out with exultation, 
" The sea, the sea ;" while they could not refrain from tears, nor from 
embracing their generals and officers, and then, without waiting for 
orders, they heaped up a pile of stones, and erected a trophy, with 
broken bucklers and other arms. 

From thence they advanced to the mountains of Colchis, of which 
the Colchians had possessed themselves. The Greeks drew up in bat- 
tle at the bottom, and their generals encouraged them with its being the 
last obstacle they had to surmount. Imploring the assistance of their 
gods, they ascended ; but the enemy, not being able to support the 
charge, dispersed. The Greeks passed the mountain, and encamped in 
villages, where they found provisions in abundance. A singular cir- 
cumstance happened there to the army. The soldiers, finding a num- 
ber of bee-hives in that place, and eating the honey, were taken with 
violent vomiting and fluxes, attended with raving fits ; so that even the 
least ill seemed like drunken men, and the rest either furiously mad or 
dying. The earth was strewed with their bodies, as after a defeat ; 
however none of them died, and the distemper ceased the next day, 
about the same time it had taken them. The third or fourth day the 
soldiers got up, but in the condition of people who have taken a violent 
medicine. 

Two days after the army arrived at Trebisond, a Greek colony of Si- 
nopians, situated upon the Euxine, or Black Sea, in the province of 
Colchis. Here they lay in camp for thirty days, and acquitted them- 
selves of the vows they had made to Jupiter, and the other deities, to 
obtain a happy return to their own country. They also celebrated the 



Mention the precautions that they made use of — From what mountain did they 
descry the sea ? — How did the Colchians oppose them ? — What effect had the 
honey eaten by the Grecians ? — Where is Trebisond ? — How long did they en- 
camp there ? — What game3 did they celebrate ? 



AGESILAUS. 121 

games of horse and foot races, wrestling, boxing, the pancratium ; the 
whole attended with joy and solemnity. 

They next deliberated on the best means for their return to Greece. 
They were inclined to proceed by sea ; but not being able to procure a 
sufficient number of ships, they marched by land to Cerasus, where 
they had a general review of the troops, who were found to amount to 
8,600 men, out of about 10,000 ; the rest having died in the retreat, of 
their wounds, fatigues, or diseases. From thence they proceeded to 
Cotyora, where they embarked, and the next day arrived at Sinope, a 
city of Paphlagonia. 

Hitherto, during their march, they had no leader ; all affairs were 
determined in the council of w T ar by the plurality of voices. They were 
now resolved to nominate a general, and they cast their eyes on Xeno- 
phon ; but he declining the honour, they elected Chirisophus, a Lace- 
daemonian, for their general. The soldiers, now approaching near to 
Greece, were desirous of making some booty, and it was not without 
difficulty that Xenophon extricated both them and their leaders from 
some imprudences. At length, partly by land and partly by sea, they 
reached Chrysopolis, opposite Byzantium, and from thence crossed over 
that arm of the sea which separates the two continents. 

CHAPTER 19. 

AGESILAUS — VICTORY OF CONON — DECLINE OF THE 
LACEDAEMONIAN POWER. 

This retreat of the 10,000 Greeks has always passed among the 
judges of the art of war for a perfect model in its kind, and never had 
a parallel. No enterprise could be formed with more bravery, or con- 
ducted with greater prudence, or executed with better success. Ten 
thousand men, 500 or 600 leagues from their own country, who had 
lost their generals and best officers, in the heart of the enemy's vast 
empire, in the sight of a victorious and numerous army ; to retire in a 
manner from the gates of the king's palace, and to traverse a vast ex- 
tent of unknown countries, almost all in arms against them, every hour 
exposed to innumerable obstacles and dangers ; passes of rivers, of 
mountains and defiles ; open attacks, secret ambuscades, famine, almost 
inevitable through vast and desert regions, and to return through a 
thousand dangers triumphant to their own country, these are exploits 
to which there is no parallel. Jt was the success of this memorable 
retreat which filled the people of Greece with contempt for the power 
of Artaxerxes, and gave birth to those bold enterprises which at length 
brought the Persian empire to the very brink of destruction. 

(B. C. 397.) Agis, one of the Lacedaemonian kings, died about this 
time, and the crown was disputed by Leotychides and Agesilaus, the 
former the son, the latter the brother, of the deceased. Indeed there 
was a current report that the queen had confessed Leotychides to be 

Whom did the Greeks now appoint as their leader? — What eulogiums nave 
been bestowed on the above retreat ? 
11 



122 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

her son by Alcibiades. Most of the Spartans, charmed with the virtue 
and great merit of Agesilaus, supported him with all their influence ; 
and he was declared king. Plutarch observes that Agesilaus, from his 
infancy, was remarkable for uniting those great qualities in himself 
"«i T hich are generally incompatible ; a vivacity of spirit, an invincible 
resolution, and an ardent passion to surpass others, with a docility, 
gentleness, and nobleness of disposition. He was lame ; but that de- 
fect was covered by the easy gaiety of his manner, and the gracefulness 
of his person. 

By such obliging conduct, supported by such extraordinary merit, he 
acquired great credit, and almost absolute power, in the city. The 
Ephori, to prevent its effects, and give a check to his ambition, laid a 
fine upon him ; alleging, as their sole reason, that he attached the 
hearts of the citizens to himself alone, which were the right of the 
republic. Never was a king of Sparta so powerful as Agesilaus ; and 
it was only, as Xenophon says, by obeying his country in every thing,* 
that he acquired so great an authority. 

Agesilaus had scarcely ascended the throne when accounts came 
from Asia that the king of Persia was fitting out a fleet, with intent to 
deprive the Lacedaemonians of the empire of the sea. The Spartan 
king took upon himself the expedition, accompanied by Lysander ; and 
his first object was to deliver the Greeks in Asia from their subjection 
to Persia. He first gained a victory over Tisaphernes, the Persian 
satrap ; and Tithraustes was commissioned by the Persian king to say 
that the cities of Asia should enjoy their liberty, paying him the cus- 
tomary tribute, provided he would withdraw his troops, and return to 
Greece. Agesilaus had been two years at the head of the army in 
Asia, and had already made the most remote provinces tremble at his 
name. He had restored order and tranquillity in all the Greek cities, 
and reinstated them in the possession of their liberty, not only without 
shedding of blood, but without banishing a single person. Agesilaus 
was then about to lead on his troops into the heart of Persia ; but he 
received orders from the Ephori to return and defend his country. 

Tithraustes, who commanded for the king in Asia, seeing the ten- 
denc) r of Agesilaus's designs, and desiring to prevent their effects, had 
sent Timocrates, of Rhodes, into Greece, with great sums of money, 
to corrupt the principal persons in the cities, and by their means occa- 
sion defection against Sparta. The haughtiness of the Lacedaemonians, 
especially since they considered themselves masters of all Greece, had 
universally disgusted the people ; and from the cities in their depend- 
ence they exacted a submission, which by their severity was rendered 
insupportable. 

Tithraustes, therefore, did not find it difficult to draw off Thebes, 

* Simonides, the poet, called Sparta " the tamer of men ;" because it rendered its in- 
habitants, by good habits, the most active and vigorous, and, at the same time, the most 
obedient to the laws. 

What said Tlutarch of Agesilaus? — What did the Ephori to check his ambi- 
t.on? — How did Agesilaus oppose the Persian forces? — Did not the Persians 
attempt to bribe the Grecians ? 



DECLINE OF THE LACEDEMONIAN POWER. 123 

Argos, and Corinth, from Sparta; and Athens soon after seconded their 
efforts with vigour. The Lacedaemonians took the field, and entered 
Phocis. Lysander, in besieging Haliartus, met his death, and Pausa- 
nias, who was to act in concert with him, on his return to Sparta, was 
disgraced. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians had raised anothei 
army, and given the command of it to Aristodemus. Their enemies 
assembled to concert the operations of the war. Timolaus, of Corinth, 
said the Laced aemonians were like a river, that grew larger as it removed 
from its source ; or a swarm of bees, which it was easy to burn in their 
hives, but who disperse themselves widely when they fly abroad ; and 
his opinion was, that they should be attacked in their capital. But the 
Lacedaemonians did not give them time ; they took the field, and found 
the enemy near Nemeea, not far from Corinth, where a rude battle en- 
sued, in which the Spartans had the advantage. 

About this time the Persian and Lacedaemonian fleets came in view 
of each other near Cnidos, a maritime city of Caria, in Asia Minor. 
Pharnabazus, the satrap, and Conon, the Athenian, had the command 
of the former; and Pisander, the brother-in-law of Agesilaus, of the 
latter. Conon, who had in some measure occasioned the taking of 
Athens, by the loss of the sea-fight near ^Egospotamus, used extraor- 
dinary efforts in this to retrieve his misfortune, and to obliterate, by a 
glorious victory, the disgrace of his former defeat. In the battle he was 
going to give, the Persians would bear the whole expense, although the 
victory would redound to the credit of Athens. The battle was con- 
tested with great valour; but the allies of Sparta betaking themselves 
to flight, Pisander, the Spartan leader, died sword in hand. Conon 
took fifty galleys, the rest escaped to Cnidos. The revolt of almost 
all the allies of Sparta was the consequence of this victory ; and from 
this battle the power of the Lacedaemonians declined. All their actions 
in Asia were no more than the feeble efforts of an expiring power, till 
the defeats of Leuctra and Mantinea completed their downfall. 

Pharnabazus and Conon then made themselves masters at sea, and 
ravaged the whole coast of Laconia. That satrap, returning to his 
government of Phrygia, left Conon the command of the naval arma- 
ment, with very considerable sums for the re-establishment of Athens. 
Conon, victorious, repaired thither, and was received with universal 
applause. Providence seemed to decree that this city, formerly des- 
troyed by the Persians, should be again raised at their own cost. Co- 
non, seconded by the zeal of the Thebans, soon rebuilt the walls, and 
restored the city to its ancient splendour. 

Sparta could not see without extreme mortification, so glorious a 
change in its ancient rival and almost constant enemy. This made them 
take the resolution of avenging themselves on Athens and on Conon its 
deliverer, by making peace with the king of Persia, and by accusing 
Conon of having wasted the king's money, employed in the re-estab- 
lishment of Athens. Tiribazus, the Persian satrap, seized Conon and 

What Grecian states were bribed ? — What was said of the Lacedaemonians? — 
Who headed the Persian forces? — And who the Spartan? — Who were victori- 
ous ? — What the effect on the Lacedaemonians ? — Did not Conon improve the city 
ot Athens ? — What disgrace befel Conon ? 



124 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

put him in prison. Some authors, according to Cornelius Nepos, have 
written that he was carried to Susa, and there executed by the king's 
order. The silence of Xenophon, who was his contemporary, in regard 
to his death, makes it doubtful. 

It was at this time that E vagoras extended his conquests in the island 
of Cyprus. The war had been feebly conducted for some years between 
E Vagoras and the Persians; but at last Artaxerxes applied himself 
more vigorously to terminate the conflict. Evagoras was descended 
from Teucer of Salamis, who, at his return from Troy, built this city, 
and gave it the name of his country. His descendants had reigned 
there from that time ; but a stranger of Phoenicia, having dispossessed 
the lawful king, took his place, and to maintain himself in the usurpa- 
tion, had filled the city with barbarians, and subjected the whole island 
to the king of Persia. 

Under this tyrant Evagoras was born. He was distinguished among 
the youth by the beauty of his aspect, the vigour of his body, and by 
the gracefulness of his deportment. Evagoras when he grew up ex- 
pelled the usurper, and established himself in Salamin, the capital, and 
afterwards, extending his conquests from city to city, endeavoured to 
make himself master of the whole island. But the Persian king at 
last attacked Evagoras with all his forces, and besieged the city. A 
negotiation was then concluded, that Evagoras should continue king of 
Salamin only, and that he should pay to the king of Persia an annual 
tribute: Evagoras lived twelve or thirteen years after the conclusion of 
this treaty. His old age was attended with happiness and tranquillity, 
uninterrupted by sickness and disease, the probable effect of a sober 
and temperate life. Nicocles, his eldest son, succeeded him, and in- 
herited his virtues as well as his throne. 

The next expedition of Artaxerxes (B. C. 372,) was against the Ca- 
dusians, a people that inhabited part of the mountains situated between 
the Euxine and Caspian seas. The king marched against them in 
person, at the head of an army of 300,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. — 
Artaxerxes had not advanced far into the country when his army suf- 
fered extremely by famine. The whole camp was reduced to eat their 
carriage beasts. In this conjuncture, Tiribazus, the satrap, by a strata- 
gem, saved the king and his army. The Cadusians had two kings, 
who did not act in concert. Tiribazus went himself to one, and sent 
his son to the other. Each informed the king to whom he applied, that 
the other had sent ambassadors to treat privately with Artaxerxes, and 
advised him to lose no time to make his peace also. The fraud suc- 
ceeded. Tiribazus and his son brought ambassadors with them to the 
king, and the treaty was concluded with both parties. 

Who was Evagoras ? — From whom descended ? — Of what city was Evagoras 
'king? — What was his character? — And who succeeded him? — What was the 
next expedition of Artaxerxes ? — What stratagem was used by Tiribazus, the 
satrap ? 



SOCRATES. 125 

CHAPTER 20. 

SOCRATES. 

About 400 years before the birth of Christ, died Socrates, one of 
the greatest heathen philosophers. Socrates was born at Athens. His 
father was a sculptor, and his mother, Phaenarete, a midwife. Crito is 
reported to have taken him out of his father's shop, from the admiration 
of his fine genius. He was the disciple of Archelaus, and his first 
study was that of the works of nature, or physics, and of the move- 
ment of the heavenly bodies. But finding how. little useful that kind 
of learning was to the generality of mankind, he conceived the thought 
of bringing down philosophy from heaven, to place it in cities, and 
more within the reach of man's capacity ; to make them more rational, 
just, and virtuous. In what consist fortitude, temperance, and wisdom ; 
what is the end of all government, and what the rules of it, Socrates 
had a just and piercing judgment, joined with the most exquisite pru- 
dence. Chasremon, a zealous disciple of Socrates, happening to be at 
Delphi, demanded of the oracle whether there was a wiser man in the 
world than Socrates. The priestess answered there was none. 

So attentive was he to benefit his country, that he seemed the com- 
mon father of the republic. But, as it was difficult to correct the aged, 
he devoted his labour principally to the instruction of youth. He had 
no open school, like the rest of the philosophers, nor set times for the 
lessons. He was the philosopher of all times and seasons. He 
taught in all places and on all occasions, — in walking, conversation, 
and at meals, — in the army — in the midst of a camp, and in the public 
assembly. 

The services he did the state, by the instructions he gave, and by the 
disciples he formed, are inexpressibly great. Soon after the expulsion 
of the thirty tyrants out of Athens, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, 
Socrates was accused of holding bad opinions with regard to the gods. 
The contempt into which he had brought the doctrine and morals of the 
sophists of his time, who were then in high reputation, drew public 
envy upon him ; and his enemies were bent upon his destruction. The 
first seeds sown against him were in a satirical comedy, called "The 
Clouds," introduced in the theatre, — in which Aristophanes lent his 
pen to the malice of Socrates' enemies, to depreciate the best and most 
excellent man that ever the pagan world produced. 

Melitus appeared as his accuser : — First, that he did not admit the 
gods acknowledged by the republic ; second, that he corrupted the 
youth of Athens. Socrates' reply displayed a noble and intrepid assu- 
rance, resulting from a consciousness of his truth and innocence. His 
discourse was bold, manly, and generous ; without passion or emotion, 
with no other ornament but that of truth. Plato, who was present, 

What is said of the birth and character of Socrates ? — Relate his mode of in- 
struction. — Of what was he accused ; and what comedy was written against him, 
and by whom ? — What, accusations were brought against him? — What is said of 
his imprisonment ; of his wife and family; and of his death ? 

11* 



126 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

transcribed it afterwards ; and he has given it to the world as the "Apo- 
logy of Socrates." His defence, able as it was, did not save him ; 
sentence was passed upon him. The morning before his death his 
friend Crito proposed that he should escape from prison, and obtain a 
safe retreat in Thessaly. This offer Socrates declined, and when the 
fatal cup of hemlock was presented to him, he drank off the draft 
with an amazing serenity of aspect. His wife and children had visited 
him in the prison ; but the extremity of her grief made it needful that 
she should be removed. 

Plato, and the rest of Socrates' disciples, apprehending the rage of 
his accusers, retired to the house of Euclid, at Megara, till the storm 
blew over. Euripides, however, to reproach the Athenians with the 
horrible crime they had committed, composed his tragedy called " Pa- 
lamedes." But it was sometime after the death of Socrates before the 
notorious injustice of the sentence appeared to the Athenians in all its 
horrors. Then the accusers were called to account for the blood they 
had shed. Melitus was condemned to die, and the rest were banished. 
A statue of brass was erected to the memory of Socrates, and a chapel 
was dedicated to him, as to a hero and a demi-god. 

As to the doctrine of Socrates, it must be allowed that the pagan 
world never produced anything so great and perfect. To what a height 
did he carry the sublimity of his sentiments, not only with respect to 
moral virtue, temperance, sobriety, patience in adversity, acquiescence 
in poverty, forgiveness of wrongs, but, what is far more considerable, 
in regard to the Divinity, his unity, omnipotence, creation of the world, 
and providence in the government of it ; the immortality of the soul ; 
its ultimate end and eternal destiny; the rewards of the good, and the 
punishment of the wicked. When we consider this train of divine 
knowledge, we are ready to ask ourselves, whether it is a pagan who 
thinks and speaks in this manner ; and we can scarcely be persuaded, 
that from so dark and obscure a source as paganism should shine forth 
such living and glorious rays of light. 

It is true his reputation was not without alloy; and it has been 
affirmed that his manners did not always answer the purity of his sen- 
timent. He did not dare to give a public testimony to the truths he 
believed, but observed all the customs and ceremonies as enjoined by 
the laws of his country. He held peculiar opinions in the schools, but 
followed the multitude in the temples. He acknowledged in reality 
only one divinity, and yet worshipped, with the people, that multitude 
of infamous idols, which ancient superstition had heaped up during a 
long succession of ages. 

CHAPTER 21. 

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GREEKS. 

It is an essential part of history to illustrate the character, genius, 
and manners of the people. In noticing those of Lacedaemon and 

What is said of Plato, Euripides, Melitus, &c. ? — What is said of the doctrine 
of Socrates? — Did his conduct always correspond with the purity of his senti- 
ments! 



MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GREEKS. 127 

Athens, we shall speak of their political government, war, and religion : 
and first of Sparta. From the time the Heraclides had re-entered Pe- 
'oponnesus, Sparta was governed by two kings, who were always of 
the same two families, descended from Hercules by two different 
branches. Sparta, in its beginning, was always involved in commo- 
tions and revolts which would infallibly have occasioned its ruin, if the 
wise foresight of Lycurgus had not prevented the fatal consequences. 
Lycurgus restored order and peace to Sparta by the establishment of 
twenty-eight senators, over whom the two kings presided. At length, 
to prevent an abuse of power, a curb was given to it by the nomination 
of five Ephori, who were elected out of the people. Their office lasted 
only one year ; and they had authority not only over the senators, but 
over the kings themselves. 

The power of the kings was extremely limited, especially in time 
of peace. In war they had the command of the fleets and armies ; and 
at that time greater authority. There must have been much wisdom in 
the laws established by Lycurgus, because, as long as they were obeyed, 
no commotions or seditions of the people were known. The reason 
assigned is, that in Sparta the law governed with sovereign authority, 
while many other Grecian cities were abandoned to the arbitrary and 
irregular sway of private men or despotic power. 

To preserve the Spartan laws without change, particular care was 
taken to educate the youth according to the laws and manners of the 
country. The hard and sober manner in which they were brought up, 
inspired them during the rest of their lives with habits of frugality and 
temperance, and prepared them for supporting the fatigues of war. 
From Sparta were banished drunkenness, debauchery, and their conse- 
quent disorders. Their children were accustomed from their infancy to 
an entire submission to the laws, to magistrates, and all in authority. 
Not only the poor and the ordinary citizens, but the rich and powerful 
also were subject to the same obedience. To this entire submission to 
the laws of the state Lycurgus added another principle, which removed 
from Sparta all luxury, profusion, and magnificence, which decried 
riches and made poverty honourable. 

The epoch of the declension of Sparta began with the violation of 
Lycurgus's laws. No sooner had the ambition of reigning over all 
Greece acquainted them with the design of naval armies and foreign 
troops, and that money was necessary for the support of these forces, 
than the way was prepared for changes which were ultimately the cause 
of their ruin. 

It is well known that Lycurgus had formed his plan upon the model 
of the laws in the island of Crete. Minos, whom fable calls the son 
of Jupiter, was the author of these laws. He lived about 100 years 
before the Trojan war. He was a powerful, wise, and gentle prince ; 
and still more estimable for his moral virtues than for his military abili- 
ties. The end he proposed in the establishment of these laws was, to 



From whom were the Heraclides descended ? — Was the power of the kings 
much limited? — What was their mode of educating the young? — Upon whose 
inodel did Lycurgus form his laws? 



128 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

render his subjects happy by making them virtuous. He banished idle- 
ness and voluptuousness from his states, and with them luxury and 
vicious pleasures. He endeavoured to establish a kind of equality 
amongst them, to remove all envy and dissension. He did not make 
any new division of the lands, nor prohibit the use of gold and silver. 

He decreed that the children should be brought up and educated 
together, that they might learn the same principles and maxims. Their 
life was hard and sober ; they were accustomed to suffer heat and cold ; 
to skirmish with each other ; to suffer courageously ; and were so edu- 
cated that, even in their diversions, everything might form them for 
war. They were made to learn certain airs of music, but of a manly 
and martial kind. They excelled in drawing the bow ; and as to 
archery and light-armed soldiers, fit to execute the stratagems of war, 
the Cretans pretended to hold the foremost rank. 

Minos, as well as Lycurgus, is reproached with having no other view 
in his laws than war, which is a great fault in a legislator. But he 
ordained that war should only be made for the sake of peace. Among 
the Cretans, the cultivation of the mind was not entirely neglected ; the 
youth received some tincture of learning. 

One of Minos's regulations, and which Plato admired the most, was 
to inspire youth with a high respect for the maxims, customs, and laws 
of the state, and not to suffer them to call in question the wisdom of 
these institutions. 

The government of Crete was at first monarchical, but the authority 
of king was of no long duration ; and it gave place to a republican form, 
as Minos had intended. The senate composed the state council ; but 
the public affairs were of no force till the people had given them their 
approbation. The magistrates, to the number of ten, called Cosmi, 
were the balance between the other two powers. The slaves and mer- 
cenaries of Crete cultivated the lands. They were called Perioeci. 

Minos committed to his brother Rhadamanthus a share in the admi- 
nistration of justice in the capital city, and another minister had the 
care of the other cities. Crete, under so wise a legislature, seemed to 
become the abode of virtue, purity, and justice ; as we may judge from 
what fable tells us of the honour conferred on Minos and his two bro- 
thers in making them the judges of the other world. 

The wise laws of Minos did not expire with him, but subsisted in 
all their vigour even in Plato's time, that is, more than 900 years 
after. Notwithstanding this solid merit, the theatres of Athens re- 
sounded with nothing so much as imprecations against the memory of 
Minos. This was owing to an unjust and cruel tribute he imposed 
upon them, in obliging them to send him every nine years seven young 
men and as many maids to be devoured by the Minotaur. But this was 
exacted by the grandson of the first Minos. Theseus put an end to 
this tribute by killing the Minotaur. 

It is true that the Cretans degenerated much from their ancient repu- 

To what habits were the Spartan youths accustomed 1 — Wherein did the laws 
of Minos differ ? — Was not the government of Crete republican? — What honours 
were conferred by Jupiter on Minos and Rhadamanthus ? 



GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 129 

tation, so that to Cretise became a proverb among the Greeks, implying 
to lie and to deceive.* St. Paul cites against them, as truth, the testi- 
mony of one of their ancient poets, (believed to be Epimenides,) who 
paints them in colours much to their dishonour. But this change of 
manners does not affect the probity of the ancient Cretans, nor the glory 
of Minos their king. 

CHAPTER 22. 
GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 

The government of Athens was neither so permanent nor so uniform 
as that of Sparta. Athens, after having long been governed by kings, 
and afterwards by archons, assumed entire liberty ; which gave place, 
however, for some years, to the tyrannic power of the Pisistratida?, but 
was soon after re-established, and subsisted with splendour till the de- 
feat in Sicily, and the taking of the city by the Lacedaemonians. These 
subjected them to thirty tyrants, whose authority was not of long dura- 
tion, and gave place again to liberty. In that state it continued, amidst 
various events, during a series of years, till the Roman power had sub- 
dued Greece and reduced it to a province. 

Solon was the first who established the popular government at 
Athens. Theseus, long before him, had traced out the plan, and began 
the execution of it. After having united the twelve towns into one 
city, he divided the inhabitants into three bodies — that of the nobility, 
to whom the superintendence in religious affairs and all offices was 
confided — the labourers or husbandmen, and the artizans. But Athens, 
to speak correctly, did not become a popular state, till the establish- 
ment of the nine archons, whose authority continued only for one year — 
before that, it was for ten ; and it was not till many years after, that 
Solon, by the wisdom of his laws, instituted and confirmed this form 
of government. 

Solon's great principle was to establish, as much as possible, a kind 
of equality among his citizens ; which he regarded as the foundation 
of liberty. He therefore resolved, while he left the public employ- 
ments in the hands of the rich, to give the poor some share in the go- 
vernment, from which they had been excluded. For this reason he 
made an estimate of what each individual was worth. Those who had 
an annual revenue of 500 measures, as well in grain as in liquid things, 
were placed in the first class. The second class was composed of such 
as had 300 ; and those of 200 measures were in the third class. Out 
of these three classes only, the magistrates were chosen. The citizens 
below these were denominated hirelings, or workmen, labouring with 
their hands. These held no office, they had the right only of giving 
their suffrages in the assemblies and trials of the people. 

* Titus i. 12. The Cretans are always liars, &c. 

Had not the Cretans degenerated in the times of St. Paul ? — What changes oc- 
curred in the government of Athens? — What is said of the plans of Theseus and 
Solon ? —Mention the qualifications for Solon's classes. 



130 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

But the people of Athens became more haughty after their victories 
over the Persians ; pretending to have a right to share in all the public 
offices ; and Aristides, to prevent the disorders which too tenacious 
opposition might have occasioned, thought proper to yield to them. 
The citizens of the first three classes paid certain sums into the public j 
treasury, and the proportion of revenue determined the order of the / 
classes. Solon revived and reformed also two councils ; the first was ( 
that of the Areopagus : he gave it new lustre by augmenting its power. 
The second was the Council of the Four Hundred, that is an hundred 
out of each tribe ; for Cecrops, the first king of the Athenians, had 
divided the people into four tribes. Calisthenes, long after him, changed 
that order, and established ten. It was in this Council of the Four 
Hundred all affairs were considered before they were proposed to the 
assembly of the people. 

With respect to the inhabitants of Athens, there were three sorts, citi- 
zens, strangers, and servants. In the account taken by Demetrius Pha- 
lereus, (B. C. 314,) the number amounted to 21,000 citizens, 10,000 
strangers, and 40,000 servants. The number of citizens was almost 
the same in the time of Cecrops, and less under Pericles. A citizen 
could only be such by birth or by adoption. To be a natural denizen i 
of Athens, it was necessary to be born of a father and mother both free : 
and Athenians. The freedom of the city was also conferred, in honour 
and gratitude, to strangers who had rendered great services to the state, 
as to Hippocrates. Even kings have sometimes canvassed that title for 
themselves and their children. Evagoras, king of Cyprus, thought it 
much to his honour. 

When the young men attained the age of twenty, they were enrolled 
upon the list of citizens, after having taken an oath never to dishonour 
the profession of arms, but always to fight for their religion and civil 
interests, and submit to the laws, &c, to which they call the gods to 
witness. 

By the strangers of Athens are meant those who came from a foreign 
country to settle in Attica, for the purpose of commerce or trade. 
They had no share in the government, nor votes in the assembly of the 
people, nor could they be admitted into any office. They paid a yearly 
tribute, and in default were made slaves. Xenocrates, the celebrated, 
but poor philosopher, for such default was sent to prison ; but Lycur- 
gus, the orator, having paid the tax, released him from the farmers of 
the public revenues. The generous act of Lycurgus was publicly 
extolled ; and Xenocrates meeting, some time after, the sons of his 
deliverer, told them, " I pay your father the favour he has done me 
with usury ; for the world praises him on my account." 

What changes took place after they had conquered the Persians ? — What waa 
the census of Athens, B. C. 314, as taken by Demetrius Phalerius, Cecrops, and 
Pericles? — Who were deemed natural denizens of Athens? — At what age were 
the oaths taken by the young citizens ? — Who were comprehended under the 
term strangers ? — What said Xenocrates to the sons of Lycurgus ? 



GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 131 

CHAPTER 23. 
GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 

Of Servants there were two kinds — the one, who were free, whose 
3ondition was easy ; the other were slaves, who had either been born 
such, or who had been taken prisoners of war. The masters could dis- 
pose absolutely of their slaves, though they were generally treated 
with great humanity. Whenever they were treated with rigour and 
inhumanity, they had their action against their masters, and if the fact 
was proved, they could ransom themselves without their masters' con- 
sent, when they had laid up money enough for the purpose. Persons, 
when satisfied with their service, often gave their slaves liberty, and 
the same acknowledgment was granted them by the public. The 
humane, equitable usage with which the Athenians treated their ser- 
vants and slaves, was an effect of the good temper natural to that 
people ; and very remote from the austere and cruel severity of the 
Lacedaemonians. 

The Council or Senate of Four Hundred, which Solon instituted, 
was increased by Calisthenes, about a hundred years after, to five hun- 
dred. They were chosen by lot, in which they made use of black and 
white beans. If the number of white beans carried it, that question 
passed, otherwise not. The senators, before assembling, offered a 
sacrifice to Jupiter, and to Minerva, as the goddess of good council, 
asking for prudence and understanding necessary in such wise delibe- 
rations. After a question had been settled, it was read aloud. Each 
senator then gave his vote by scrutiny, in putting a bean into each urn. 
This sort of decree was only a preparatory resolution. It was after- 
wards laid before the assembly of the people, where, if it was received 
and approved, it had the force of a law ; — if not, its authority subsisted 
only for a year. This may show with what wisdom Solon fixed the 
inconstancy of that people, and how judiciously he contrived to sup- 
port a wise balance between the different bodies. 

The council of the Areopagus took its name from the place where it 
assembled, called the Quarter or Hill of Mars. It was believed to be 
as ancient as the nation, though Cicero and Plutarch attribute the in- 
stitution of it to Solon ; but he only re-established it. The number of 
the senators of the Areopagus was not fixed ; at certain times they 
amounted to two or three hundred. Solon purposed that they only who 
had borne the office of Archon, should be honoured with that dignity. 
The orators here were not permitted to excite the passions, but w T ere 
obliged to confine themselves to the subject matter in dispute. The 
senate held their sittings in an open place, and during the night. The 
affairs of religion, the introduction of new ceremonies and new di- 
vinities were brought before this tribunal. We read in Justin Martyr, 
that Plato, who in his travels in Egypt had acquired new light concern- 



What were the different kinds of servants ? — How was the Council chosen ? ■ 
What their number? — What subjects were discussed in the Areopagus? 



132 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

ing the unity of God, when he returned, concealed his sentiments, fear 
ing to appear before the Areopagus ; and we know that St. Paul was 
accused before them, as teaching a new doctrine, and endeavouring tc 
introduce new gods. 

Of the magistrates, -a. great number were established for different func- 
tions. We shall speak principally of the archons ; they succeeded the 
kings, and their authority at first continued for life. It was then limited 
to ten years, and at last reduced to one. Solon found them with the 
number nine ; he did not abolish their office, but limited their power. 
The first of these nine magistrates was called, by way of eminence, 
Archon, and the year was denominated from him. " Under such an 
Archon such a battle was fought." The second was called the king ; 
the third polemarch, &c. 

Of the assemblies af the people. There were two sorts, the one ordi- 
nary, and fixed to certain days — the other extraordinary ; and of these 
the people were informed by express proclamation. All the people, the 
poor as well as the rich, had a right to give their suffrages. This as- 
sembly always began with sacrifices and prayers, to obtain from the 
gods the knowledge necessary to wise deliberations ; and they never 
failed to add the most terrible imprecations against such as opposed the 
public good. For trials, there were different tribunals; but appeals 
might be brought from all other judges. All the allies were obliged to 
bring their cause to Athens. The parties either pleaded their cause in 
person, or employed advocates. The time allowed for the hearing was 
generally fixed, and a water clock regulated its duration. It is re- 
markable that a friend was not obliged to give evidence against a 
friend. 

The authority of the Amphictyonic Council had always been of great 
weight in Greece. Before any were installed into that body, they took 
a very remarkable oath ; and among other things that, should any at- 
tempt to steal and take away any of the rich offerings preserved in the 
temple of Apollo at Delphi, they will use all their powers and faculties 
to avenge the sacrilege. That oath was attended by the most terrible 
imprecations ; and, knowing this, I am not astonished that the holy 
war, undertaken by the order of the Amphictyons, should be carried on 
with so much ardour. 

From the moment, however, that Philip of Macedon was admitted 
into their body, he set himself above all law, and abused his power. 
This Demosthenes, in his third Philippic, reproaches him with. " When 
he does not deign to honour us with his presence, he sends his slaves to 
reign over us." 

The Revenues of Athens amounted, in the time of the Peloponnesian 
war, to about 2,000 talents. They were reduced to four kinds: 1st. 
The revenues arising from agriculture, the sale of woods, the produce 
of mines, the duties on the import and export of merchandize, and the 
taxes levied upon the city and its inhabitants. 

What were the Archons; their office, their number, &c.? — Did not the assem- 
blies begin with sacrifice and prayer ? — Could the parties plead their own cause? 
— What is said of the Amphictyonic council? — What was the revenue of Athens 



EDUCATION OF THE GREEKS. 133 

The history of Athens often mentions the silver mines of Laurium, 
a mountain, situated between the Piraeus and Cape Sunium, and those 
of Thrace, from whence many persons extracted imm'ense riches. The 
second species of revenue were the contributions-paid the Athenians by 
the allies for the common expenses of the war. Under Aristides they 
amounted to 460 talents. Pericles augmented them almost a third, and 
raised them to 600, and some time after they were raised to 1,300. A 
third sort of revenue were the extraordinary capitation taxes, raised 
on pressing occasions and emergencies of state. 

CHAPTER 24. 
EDUCATION AND MILITARY INSTITUTIONS OF THE GREEKS 

Of the education of youth, and the exercises for forming their bodies 
and minds, may be mentioned dancing, music, fencing, riding, polite 
learning, and philosophy. 

Dancing was cultivated by the Athenians with great attention. It 
made a part of what the ancients called the Gymnastic ; divided, ac- 
cording- to Plato, into two kinds ; the Orchestric, (OgzneOat,, voltare,) 
which takes its name from the dance, and Palestric, (Ila^,) so called 
from a Greek word signifying wrestling. The exercises of the latter 
kind conduced to form the body for the fatigues of war, navigation, 
agriculture, &c. Dancing taught the rules of motion, and contributed 
to the ease and gracefulness of the figure. 

Music was cultivated with no less solicitude. The ancients ascribed 
wonderful effects to it. They believed it proper to calm the passions, 
and soften the manners, and contribute to humanize the barbarous. 
Polybius, a grave historian, attributes the extreme difference between 
two people of Arcadia to the influence of music. The one esteemed for 
the elegance of 'their manners, humanity to strangers, and piety to the 
gods ; the other, on the contrary, hated for their malignity, brutality, 
and irreligion. Socrates himself, in an advanced age, was not ashamed 
to learn to play on an instrument. 'But the license of the Grecian stage, 
which made use of both dancing and music to excite the vicious pas- 
sions, soon corrupted the art, and the theatre became a school of vice.] 

It is probable, however, that the wisest and greatest characters 
among them did not apply themselves to these arts with any great 
industry. "Are you not ashamed," said Philip to his son Alexander, 
" Are you not ashamed to sing so well ?" 

The other exercises of the body all the Greeks were very assiduous in 
performing. The places allotted for these exercises they called Palaes- 
tra or Gymnasia. These rendered the body more supple, active, hardy, 
and robust; more capable of bearing fatigue, and effecting great enter- 
prises. There were masters who taught the youth to ride, to handle 

What other species of revenue ? — In what did the several exercises consist ?-- 
What of dancing? — Was not the study of music and dancing at length said to 
corrupt, the morals of youth ? — and why ? — What said king Philip to his son Alex- 
andsr? — Name the other manly exercises and pursuits. 
12 



134 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

their arms, or fence. Even hunting- was considered by the ancients aa 
a, fit exercise for forming youth for the stratagems and fatigues of war. 
7 Athens, too, was the school and the abode of polite learning. Poetry, 
eloquence, philosophy, and mathematics, were there greatly cultivated. 
Hence proceeded the universal fine taste of Athens, where (as history 
informs us) a simple herb-woman distinguished Theophrastus to be a 
stranger from the expression of a single word. To the study of rheto- 
ric, they annexed that of Philosophy, under which may be comprised 
all the sciences. . 

The Grecians were at all times warlike. During the Trojan war, 
Greece signalized her valour in battle, and acquired fame by her bra- 
very. This expedition, however, was no more than the cradle of her 
infant glory. In these early times there were in Greece several repub- 
lics ; neighbours by situation, but extremely remote in customs, laws, 
and particular interests. This difference proved a perpetual source of 
divisions. Two cities distinguished themselves above the rest, Sparta 
and Athens ; in consequence of which, they either successively or 
together, held the empire of Greece through a long series of time. 
Thebes disputed this honour with them for some years, by surprising 
acts of valour, which had something of prodigy in them — a short-lived 
blaze of exceeding splendour, which soon disappeared, and left that 
city in its original obscurity. 

All the laws of Sparta and institutions of Lycurgus seem to have 
had no other object than war. All other employments were prohibited 
among them. Arts, polite learning, sciences, trades, and even hus- 
bandry itself had no share in their applications ; from their earliest 
infancy no other taste was instilled into them but for arms ; but among 
the Athenians and the other states of Greece, arts, trades, husbandry, 
commerce, and navigation, were held in honour, and were thought no 
obstacle to the valour and knowledge necessary for war. The famous 
battle of Marathon infinitely heightened their courage ; and the battle 
of Salamis raised them to the highest pitch of glory. 

With respect to the different kinds of troops, both Sparta and Athens 
had four sorts — citizens, allies, mercenaries, and slaves. The soldiers 
were sometimes marked in the hand, to distinguish them from the 
slaves, who had that character impressed on their foreheads. The 
Spartans never marched without Helots : in the battle of Platsea, every 
citizen had seven. The infantry consisted of two kinds of soldiers. 
The one were heavy armed, and carried great bucklers, lances, half 
pikes, and scimitars; the other, light armed, with bows and slings. 
These were commonly placed in the front of the battle, or upon the 
wings, as a first line, to shoot their arrows, and sling their javelins and 
stones at the enemy; then they retired through the intervals behind the 
battalions, as a second line, and continued their volleys. 

The Lacedaemonians did not begin to use cavalry till after the war 
with Messene. It was still more rare among the Athenians. After 
the war with the Persians, the Athenians had no more than 300 horse, 

What is said of the purity of their speech ? — Which two cities particularly uis 
linguished themselves? — Mention the different kind of Grecian troops. 



CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS. 135 

but increased them at length to 1,200. In naval affairs the Athenians 
were much superior to the Lacedaemonians, and to all the other states of 
Greece. The ships were of two kinds ; the one rowed with oars, 
which were ships of war, — the other carried sails, and were vessels of 
burden for commerce and transports. But both kinds sometimes made 
use of oars and sails together. The ships of war are often called long 
ships, by authors, by which they are distinguished from vessels of bur- 
den. Some long ships had only one rank of oars on each side ; others 
had two, three, four, five, &c. Those most commonly used in the bat- 
tles of the ancients carried from three to five ranks or benches of oars ; 
and were called triremes, quinquer ernes, &c. The rostrum, or beak of 
the prow, was that part of the vessel of which much use was made in 
sea fights. The beaks at a single blow often sunk the triremes. Two 
sorts of people served on board the galleys; 1st. the remiges, or rowers, 
and the nautas, or mariners ; 2d. the soldiers intended for the fight. 

This regulation was, however, a modern one. He who took care of 
the whole crew, and commanded thp vessel, was called nauckrus, and 
was the principal officer; the second was the gubernator, or pilot. 
The pay of those who served in these ships varied much at different 
times. When young Cyrus arrived in Asia, it was only three oboli, 
which was half a drachm, or five pence ; and the treaty between the 
Persians and Lacedaemonians was concluded on this foot. Cyrus, at 
Lysander's request, added to that pay a fourth, which made it sixpence 
half-penny a day, and on extreme occasions it was raised to a whole 
drachm, or ten pence. The same may be said of the land troops that 
has been said of the seamen, except that the horse had double their pay. 

CHAPTER 25. 
CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS. 

If it be asked how the Lacedaemonians, with their iron coin, which 
would pass nowhere else, could maintain armies — doubtless they raised 
their resources as did the Athenians, by contributions from their allies ; 
and still more from the cities to which they gave liberty and protection, 
or from those they had conquered from their enemies. Their second 
fund for paying their fleets and armies, was the aid they someiimes 
drew from the king of Persia. 

The peculiar character of the Athenians may be worth briefly notic- 
ing. Plutarch says, " they were easily provoked to anger, and as easily 
induced to resume their sentiments of benevolence and compassion." 
Of this truth history supplies numerous exumples — the sentence of 
death passed on the inhabitants of Mitylene, and revoked the next day; 
the condemnation of the ten generals, and that of Socrates, both followed 
by extreme repentance, and the most lively grief. 

They were better pleased with penetrating, and almost guessing at 

Did the Spartans, in early times, use cavalry? — Which state was superior in 
naval warfare ? — What was the pay of the troops ? — How did the Lacedaemoni- 
ans, with their iron coin, maintain armies ? — What was the peculiar character of 
the Athenians ? 



136 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

an affair themselves, than with taking the pains to be informed tho- 
roughly respecting it in all its extent. Artificers, husbandmen, soldiers, 
mariners, &c, are generally slow in their conceptions, but the people 
of Athens had great penetration, vivacity, and even delicacy of wit. 
We have already spoken of Theophrastus. He was cheapening some- 
thing of an old woman at Athens, that sold herbs. " No, Mr. Stranger," 
said she, " you shall have it for no less." He was surprised to see 
himself treated as a stranger, who had passed almost his whole life at 
Athens, and who prided himself in the elegance of his language. The 
Athenian soldiers knew the finest passages of Euripides by heart. The 
artificers and common people, from their frequency in public assemblies, 
were generally versed in affairs of state. Of this we may judge from 
the orations of Demosthenes, whose style, we know, is ardent, brief, 
and concise. 

They were attentive to the rules of politeness and benevolence. In 
the war against Philip of Macedon, having intercepted one of his cour- 
tiers, they read all the letters he carried except that to Olympias his 
wife, which they returned sealed up and unopened, out of regard to 
conjugal love and secrecy. The same Athenians having decreed that 
a strict search should be made after the presents distributed by Harpa- 
lus among the orators, would not suffer the house of Calicles, who had 
lately been married, to be visited, out of respect for his bride, not long 
brought home. Such behaviour is indicative of true politeness. 

It was glorious for Athens to have formed so many excellent persons 
in the art of war and government. In philosophy, eloquence, poetry, 
painting, sculpture, and architecture, Athens formed a greater number 
of each kind than any other city in the world, if perhaps we may ex- 
cept Rome, which had imbibed learning and arts from her. 

The last attribute of the Athenians, which we shall mention, is their 
ardent love of liberty. In the war with the Persians, they sacrificed 
every thing for the liberty of Greece, and they answered the Persians, 
by the mouth of Aristides, that all the gold and silver in the world 
would not be able to purchase the liberty of Greece. 

The Lacedaemonians, though possessing contrary qualities in many 
respects, were equally tenacious of liberty. No people could have more 
wit than the Athenians, nor more solid sense than the Lacedeemonians. 

CHAPTER 26. 

RISE OF THE THEBAN POWER. — PELOPIDAS — EPAMINOJNDAS. 

The peace of Antalcides, of which mention has been made, excited 
in the Grecian states much division and discontent. In consequence 
of that treaty, the Thebans were obliged to abandon the cities of 



Wherein did the Athenians differ from other Grecians ? — And what is men- 
tioned to prove the purity of their language? — What, proofs are adduced of theii 
politeness and delicacy? — What praise is due more particularly to Athens? — 
What reply did Aristides give to the Persians ? — How do you discriminate be- 
tween the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians ?— What peace excited discontent? 
— Who were the Spartan kings ? 



RISE OF THE THEBAN PCWER. 137 

Boeotia, and let them enjoy their liberty ; and the Corinthians, to with- 
draw their garrison from Argos ; the Mantineans were compelled to 
demolish the walls of their city, and the Lacedaemonians, who were 
the authors of these changes, saw their power extremely augmented. 
The Spartan kings were Agesipolis and Agesilaus, persons of very dif- 
ferent characters. The first was naturally inclined to peace, and dis- 
posed to suffer the Grecian cities to enjoy their liberties; the other was 
restless, active, full of great views of ambition and conquest. 

Complaint arrived at Sparta that Olynthus, a city of Thrace, was 
extending her influence and making new conquests on every side. 
The Lacedaemonians lost no time, and their troops marched directly. 
Thebes was gained possession of by artifice, and the Olynthians, be- 
sieged and reduced by the want of provision, were obliged to surren- 
der. All Boeotia was soon in the power of the Lacedaemonians, and all 
Greece seemed now subject to them, either by force or alliance. Even 
the king of Persia, and the tyrant of Sicily, seemed to emulate each 
other in courting their friendship. But a prosperity founded in injus- 
tice is seldom of long duration. The greatest blow that was given to 
the Spartan power came from the people that had been recently op- 
pressed. 

Two illustrious citizens of Thebes, Pelopidas and Epaminondas, 
both descended from noble families, and between whom subsisted a 
perfect union and friendship, and holding the first offices of state, gave 
a new face to the affairs of Greece. Several campaigns passed be- 
tween the Thebans and Lacedaemonians without any thing decisive on 
either side. It was prudent in the Theban general not hastily to hazard 
a battle till the soldiers had time to become inured and emboldened. 
When the occasion was favourable, they had a taste of victory, by way 
of reward. The principal glory of success was due to the generalship 
of Pelopidas. The engagement at Tegyra, which was a prelude to the 
battle of Leuctra, added much to his reputation. Having failed in the 
enterprise against Orchomenos, who had joined the Lacedaemonians at 
his return, he found the enemy posted to intercept him near Tegyra. 
As soon as the Thebans perceived them from the defiles, a person ran 
in haste to Pelopidas, exclaiming, " We are fallen into the enemies' 
hands." He replied, " Should we not rather say they are fallen into 
ours ]" And so it proved : for though the Theban forces were not more 
than two-thirds of the Spartan, the two generals who had charged 
Pelopidas were presently killed, and the Spartans, after a short con- 
flict, were dismayed, and fled in disorder. 

This encounter proved the prelude to great actions and events. It 
had never happened till then, in any war, either with the Persians or 
Greeks, that the Lacedaemonians, with a superiority of numbers on their 
side, had been defeated. They now lost that glory; and the Thebans 
became the terror and dread of the Grecian states. All Greece being 
weary of war, deputies were sent to Lacedaemon to concert a general 
peace ; but, by the influence of Agesilaus, one of the kings of Sparta, 

How did the Lacedaemonians act towards Thebes ? — Who were the two illus- 
trious citizens of Thebes ? — What king encouraged the war against the Thebans 

12* 



138 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

war was determined against the Thebans, who were much alarmed a' 
first, seeing themselves without allies or support, while all Greece 
looked on them as utterly lost. But Epaminondas, who was a host in 
himself, was appointed general ; and he had several colleagues joined 
in commission with him. His army did not amount to more than 6,000 
foot, and 400 horse, while the enemy had above four times that num- 
ber. He was supported by Pelopidas at the head of the sacred batta- 
lion. 

In the battle, Cleombrotus, the Spartan general, died of his wounds; 
and the Thebans, after a long-continued slaughter, completed the vic- 
tory. The Lacedaemonians had never received such a blow ; they lost 
4,000 men. The Thebans had only 300 men killed. The Spartans 
were celebrating at that time their gymnastic exercises, and the city 
was full of strangers ; when the couriers arrived from Leuctra with the 
terrible news of their defeat, the Ephori, though sensible that the Spar- 
tan power had received a mortal wound, would not suffer the represen- 
tations to be interrupted. Agesilaus decreed, "That, for the present 
day, the laws should be suspended." 

The Thebans now entered Peloponnesus, and caused many states to 
revolt from the Lacedsemonians — Elis, Argos, Arcadia, and the greater 
part of Laconia itself. They ran through their country with fire and 
sword without opposition. Parties had been posted by the Spartans to 
defend the passes. Ischolaus, the Spartan, who defended one of these, 
finding it impossible, with his small body of troops, to support the 
enemies' attack, sent away a part of his men, and devoted himself and 
the few that remained with him, after the example of Leonidas, to the 
public good ; and, after making a great slaughter of their enemies, they 
perished to a man. 

Epaminondas approached the Spartan capital. Agesilaus took the 
command of the city. He was determined not to quit it, nor to hazard 
a battle. Epaminondas would have been glad to give battle to Sparta. 
He did not, however, think proper to attempt forcing the city, and not 
being able to induce Agesilaus to quit it, he retired. 

Not long after, (B. C. 370,) Pelopidas marched against Alexander, 
tyrant of Pherse, and was killed in battle. His funeral was magnifi- 
cent, especially in the sincere affliction of the Thebans and Thessaiians. 
Nor were they content with lamenting Pelopidas, but resolved to 
avenge him. They sent a small army against Alexander, and compelled 
him to restore the cities he had taken, and to renounce all future con- 
quests. Alexander was assassinated not long after, in consequence of 
a conspiracy formed against him by his wife Thebe and her three bro- 
thers. 

The extraordinary prosperity of Thebes greatly alarmed the neigh- 
bouring states, and every thing was in motion in Greece. The people 
of Tegea had called in the Thebans to their aid ; and the Mantineans, 
with whom they were at war, had the aid of the Spartans and Atheni- 
ans. Epaminondas had the command of the Tegean troops ; and being 



Relate the success of the Thebans at Leuctra. — What befel Pelopidas and 
Alexander of Pherae? — Who called Epaminondas to their aid ? 



DEATH OF EPAMINONDAS. 139 

informed that Agesilaus had left Sparta, and was leading his forces for 
Mantinaia, he left Tegea in the night with his army, intending to take 
Sparta by surprise, as it had neither walls nor troops for its defence. 
He began to attack the city in several quarters, and penetrated as far 
as the public place, and no doubt but he would have taken the city by 
surprise, had not Agesilaus been secretly apprised of it, and returned 
hastily for its defence. Epaminondas, having failed in his aim, return- 
ed to Tegea, and foreseeing that his command was upon the point of 
expiring, he held his troops in readiness for battle. 

The Lacedaemonian forces consisted of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse ; 
the Theban of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The troops fought on 
both sides with incredible ardour, the resistance was equally obstinate, 
and the success of the contest doubtful. Epaminondas made an ex- 
traordinary effort, without regard to the danger of his person, and re- 
ceived a mortal wound, with a javelin, in the breast. The conflict was, 
nevertheless, still vigorously supported, till at length the troops on both 
sides stood still and rested on their arms, and the trumpets of both armies, 
as if by consent, sounded a retreat at the same time. Each party pre- 
tended to the victory, and each erected a trophy. Such was the event 
of the famous battle of Mantinasa. When Epaminondas was told that 
the Thebans had gained the victory, and was shown his shield, he se- 
renely desired his friends not to regard this day as the end of his life, 
but the beginning of his happiness. " I leave Thebes triumphant, 
proud Sparta humbled, and Greece delivered from the yoke of servi- 
tude, &c.' T Having spoken to this effect, he drew the head of the 
javelin from the wound, and died. 

With this great man the Theban power expired. Cicero ranks him 
above all the illustrious men Greece ever produced. Before him, Thebes 
was not distinguished by any memorable action, and, at his death, it 
sunk into its original obscurity. Epaminondas sought not power for 
himself but for his country. His actions were perfectly void of self- 
interest; the commands that were conferred upon him were not of his 
seeking. Spintharus, in giving his character, said, " That he never had 
met with a man who knew more and spoke less." 

The victory of Leuctra had drawn upon Epaminondas the eyes and 
admiration of all Greece ; he was beheld as the restorer of Thebes and 
the triumphant conqueror of Sparta. Epaminondas, little sensible to 
such a glory, said, " My joy arises from my sense of that which the 
news of this victory will give my father and mother." Nothing in 
history seems to me so valuable as such sentiments, proceeding from a 
heart which neither false glory nor false greatness had corrupted. The 
Lacedaemonians were never able to recover the reputation and influence 
which they lost in the Theban war. 

Epaminondas was an exception to the general opinion, that the 
Boeotians were dull and stupid. Their dullness was imputed to the 
gross air of the country ; and, on the contrary, the Athenian delicacy 



Relate the events of the battle. — What is the character of Epaminondas ? — 
What was his observation after the victory of Leuctra? — To what was the dull 
ness of the Boeotians ascribed ? 



140 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of taste was attributed to the purity of the air they breathed. Pindar 
and Plutarch, who had very little of the soil in them, are proofs that 
genius is of all nations. 

CHAPTER 27. 

ARTAXERXES MNEMON UNDERTAKES THE REDUCTION OF 
EGYPT. 

Artaxerxes formed a design of reducing Egypt. Achoris, who then 
reigned there, and who had given Evagoras, king of Salamis, in the 
isle of Cyprus, powerful aid against the Persians, foresaw the storm 
and raised abundance of troops, and took numerous auxiliaries into pay, 
of whom Chabrias had the command. But the Persians complained to 
Athens of the appointment, and Chabrias was recalled. The prepara- 
tions of the Persians went on so slowly that two whole years elapsed 
before they entered into action. Achoris, king of Egypt, died in that 
time, and was succeeded by Psammathis, who reigned but one year. 
Nephretitus was the next ; and four months after, Nectanebis, who 
reigned ten or twelve years. 

At length a Persian camp was formed at Ptolemais, since called 
Acre, in Palestine, the place appointed for the general rendezvous. — 
The army consisted of 200,000 Persians, under the command of Phar- 
nabazus, and 20,000 Greeks, under Iphicrates, and the forces at sea 
were in proportion to those on land. The war was to open with the 
siege of Palusium, but so much time had been given to the Egyptians, 
that Nectanebis rendered the approach to it impracticable both by sea 
and land. The Persians, however, found an entrance at another of the 
mouths of the Nile, called Mendesium, and the fort was carried sword 
in hand, and no quarter given. Iphicrates purposed, without loss of 
time, to attack Memphis, the capital of Egypt, and had he done so, it 
must inevitably have fallen. But Pharnabazus believed it necessary to 
wait for the concentration of the whole army. Abject jealousy has 
been ascribed to him as the motive, apprehending that, if the enterprise 
against Memphis succeeded, the whole glory of the war would redound 
to Iphicrates. This delay was the preservation of Egypt, and pre- 
vented the Persians' advance into the country. The inundation of the 
Nile came on, the Persians returned to Phoenicia, and the best part of 
their troops were ineffectually lost. 

After the battle of Mantinsea, both parties entered into a general 
peace with all the states of Greece, by which the enjoyment of its 
laws and liberties was secured to each city ; and the Messenians were 
included in it, notwithstanding the intrigues of the Lacedaemonians to 
prevent it. 

While this passed in Greece, Tachos, who had ascended the throne 
of Egypt, in order to defend himself against the king of Persia, invited 
Agesilaus, king of Sparta, to take the command of the forces. A mis- 

By whom were preparations made against Egypt ? — What Egyptian fort did tho 
Persians carry? — Whom did Agesilaus place on the throne of Egypt? — Wha 
was the age of Agesilaus ? — How long did he reign? 



WAES OF THE PEESIANS. 141 

understanding arising afterwards between him and Tachos, Agesilaus 
left him, and placed Nectanebis, his cousin, on the throne. On the 
return of Agesilaus to Lacedsemon, he died at the age of eighty-four 
years. He had reigned forty-one at Sparta, and had passed as the 
leader and king of all Greece till the battle of Leuctra. His son JlrcM- 
damns succeeded to the throne. 

The end of Artaxerxes' reign abounded with cabals, and the whole 
court was divided into factions in favour of one or other of his sons. 
He had many by his concubines, and three by his lawful wife Antossa. 
To put a stop to these divisions, he declared Darius, the eldest, his 
successor, and permitted him from thenceforth to assume the title of 
king. Darius, nevertheless, conspired against his father. But Arta- 
xerxes having timely notice, Darius and the conspirators were seized, 
and their lives paid the forfeiture of their crimes. 

Artaxerxes died after a reign of forty-three years, which might be 
called happy, if it had not been interrupted by so many revolts. Ochus, 
who succeeded, was the most cruel and wicked of all the princes of his 
race. In a short time the palace and the whole empire were filled with 
his murders. At one time, 100 of his relations were shut up in a court 
of the palace and put to death. 

Ochus afterwards turned his thoughts on Egypt, which had revolted, 
and while preparing for the expedition, he received advice of the revolt 
of Phoenicia. That people, oppressed by the Persian government, 
resolved to throw off so heavy a yoke ; and they made a league with 
Nectanebis, king of Egypt, against whom Persia was marching its 
armies. As there was no other passage from Persia to Egypt but 
through Phoenicia, this insurrection was very seasonable for Nectane- 
bis. He intended to make Phosnicia his barrier. The king approached 
Sidon, and by treachery, the city was surrendered to him. 

All Phoenicia then submitted to Ochus. The Jews must have had 
some share in this war of the Phoenicians ; for Sidon was no sooner 
taken, than Ochus entered Judea, besieged and took Jericho, and car- 
ried a great number of Jewish captives into Egypt, and sent many 
others into Hyrcania, where he settled them along the coasts of the 
Caspian Sea. In his way to' Egypt, he reduced the isle of Cyprus, 
and notwithstanding the vast preparations of Nectanebis, after suffer- 
ing some severe defeats, and having lost all hope, he escaped with his 
treasures and best effects into Ethiopia, from whence he never returned. 
He was the last king of Egyptian race, since which it has continued 
under a foreign yoke, according to the prediction of Ezekiel. (Ezek. 
xxix. 14, 15.) 

Ochus having entirely conquered Egypt, dismantled the cities, pil- 
laged the temples, and returned in triumph to Babylon, laden with 
spoils, in which were included immense sums of gold and silver. He 
afterwards abandoned himself to pleasure, leaving the care of his 
affairs entirely to his ministers. The two principal of them were the 

What revolts did Artaxerxes experience ? — What was the character of Ochus, 
his successor? — In what wars was Ochus engaged ? — And with whom? — What 
conquests did he make in Phoenicia, Cyprus, &c. ? — What spoils did Ochus cany 
from Egypt ? 



142 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

eunuch Bagoas, and Mentor the Rhodian, who divided all power be- 
tween them. The death of Ochus is believed to have arisen from the 
revenge of Bagoas, who placed Arsaces, the king's youngest son, on 
the throne; reserving to himself the whole power of the sovereignty. 
Arsaces, perceiving the wickedness of Bagoas, adopted measures with 
a view to punish it, but he failed, and was destroyed with all his 
family. 

Bagoas then placed Darius upon the throne. He was the third of 
that name who reigned in Persia; his real name was Codomanus, of 
whom we shall speak hereafter. 

CHAPTER 28. 
WAR OF THE ALLIES AGAINST THE ATHENIANS. 

Some few years after the revolt of Asia Minor, (B. C. 358,) Chio, 
Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium, took up arms against Athens, upon 
which, till then, they had depended. To employ them, they had en- 
gaged a large number of forces and great captains — Chabrias, Iphicra- 
tes, and Timotheus. They were the last of the Athenian generals who 
did honour to their country. Chabrias acquired a great name ; when 
having been sent against the Spartans, to the aid of theThebans, though 
abandoned in the battle by the allies, he sustained alone the charge of 
the enemy. The Athenians erected a statue to him. 

Iphicrates was of very mean extraction ; but in a city like Athens, 
merit was the sole nobility. Though at first only a private soldier, his 
deserts soon raised him to a command. In a prosecution carried on 
against him, his accuser, having reproached him with the baseness of 
his birth, — " Yes," replied he ; " the nobility of my family begins with 
me; that of yours ends with you." He married the daughter of Co- 
tys, king of Thrace. 

Timotheus was the son of Conon, so much celebrated for his great 
actions. He did not degenerate from his father's reputation. At first 
no captain ever experienced less than he did the inconstancy of fortune; 
he had only to undertake an enterprise to accomplish it. Success ever 
attended his designs. Those who envied him caused him to be painted 
asleep, with fortune by him, taking cities with nets. Timotheus coldly 
replied, " If I take places in my sleep, what shall I do when I awake]" 
The goddess of Fortune, says Plutarch, offended at his arrogance, 
abandoned him, and he was never successful afterwards. 

The war of the allies, after having continued three years, was con- 
cluded. (B. C. 356.) But this did not entirely remove the apprehen- 
sions of the Athenians with regard to the king of Persia. The great 
preparations he was making gave them umbrage. Athens took the 
alarm. The orators increased the fears of the people, exhorting them 
to have immediate recourse to arms. Demosthenes (born B. C. 381,) 
made his first appearance in public at this time : he was twenty-eight 

What cities revolted against Athens ? — Who was Iphicrates ? — Who was Timo- 
theus ? — When did Demosthenes make his first appearance ? — What was his age ? 
— How long before the time of Christ ? 



WAR OF THE ALLIES AGAINST THE ATHENIANS. 143 

years of age. He dared not, indeed, oppose their advice in a direct 
manner, lest he should render himself suspected ; but he represented 
that it was not consistent with prudence to be precipitate, nor to take 
up a resolution upon certain reports, nor to furnish so powerful a prince 
with a just reason to turn his arms against Greece. All that was neces- 
sary now was to fit out a fleet of 300 sail, and also to hold the troops 
in readiness, in case of an attack ; and that the report alone would be 
sufficient to induce the Persian king, if he had formed such a design, to 
change his measures. Nor was it needful to lay an immediate tax 
upon the estates of private persons for the expense of the war. Should 
the necessity appear, everybody would then be ready to contribute a 
little, rather than lose their all, &c. This discourse had all the effects 
desired. 

Two years after, an enterprise of the Lacedaemonians against Mega- 
lopolis, a city of Arcadia, gave Demosthenes another opportunity to sig- 
nalize his zeal, and display his eloquence. The Megalopolitans had 
recourse to Athens ; the others concerned sent their deputies thither 
also, and the affair was debated before the people. 

The Athenians, moved by the eloquent address of Demosthenes, sent 
3,000 foot and 300 horse to the aid of the Megalopolitans, under the 
command of Pammenes ;* and the city was reinstated in its former 
condition. 

The people of Rhodes and Cos, who had been declared free by the 
Grecian treaty, received the yoke of Mausolus, king of Caria. He 
died about two years after, having reigned twenty-four years. Art.e- 
missa,f his wife, succeeded him ; and as she was supported with all 
the influence of the king of Persia, she retained her power in the isles 
lately subjected. This princess immortalized herself by the honour 
she rendered to the memory of Mausolus, her husband. She caused a 
magnificent monument to be erected for him in Halicarnassus, which 
was called the Mausoleum, and for its beauty was esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world ; and it has given the name of Mausoleum to all 
great and magnificent structures of the kind. She is said also to have 
gathered his ashes, to have had his bones pounded in a mortar, and to 
have mingled some of the powder every day in her drink, desiring by 
that means to make her own body the sepulchre of her husband. She 
survived him only two years, and her grief did not end but with her 
life. 

CHAPTER 29. 

PHILIP OF MACEDON. 

Macedon was an hereditary kingdom, situated in ancient Thrace, and 
bounded on the south by the mountains of Thessaly. It was formed 

* This is not the Pammenes of Thehes, of whom mention has been made before. 

t B. C. 354. She must not be confounded with the Artemissa that lived about one 
hundred years before, and distinguished himself in the time of Xerxes, at the battle of 
Salamis. 

What events occurred at Megalopolis ? — What is recorded of Mausolus, and </» 
his queen ? — What monument did she erect ? — What became of his ashes ? — 
Describe the situation of Macedon. 



144 HISTORY OF GKEECE. 

into a kingdom by the aggregation of a considerable number of sma]i 
tribes. After Philip had conquered part of Thrace and Illyrium, his 
dominion extended from the Adriatic sea to the river Styrmon. Edessa 
was its first capital ; but afterwards Pella, famous for giving birth to 
Philip and Alexander. 

Philip was the son of Amyntas II., who is reckoned the tenth king 
of Macedon from Caranus, who had founded that kingdom about 430 
years before, that is, before Christ 794. The history of all these mo- 
narchs is sufficiently obscure, and includes little more than several wars 
with the Illyrians, the Thracians, and other neighbouring states. The 
kings of Macedon pretended to descend from Hercules by Caranus, and, 
consequently, to have been Greeks originally. 

Jlmyntas, the father of Philip, began to reign B. C. 398. In a con- 
test with the Olynthians, he sought and received the aid of the Atheni- 
ans, and this strong alliance was continued after his death with queen 
Eurydice his widow. 

Philip, one of the sons of Amyntas, was born the same year in which 
that monarch declared war against the Olynthians ; and this Philip was 
the father of Alexander the Great. Amyntas died after having reigned 
twenty-four years. He left three legitimate children whom Eurydice 
had brought him ; viz., Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip. Alexander 
succeeded his father, as eldest son ; he reigned but one year. The 
crown now belonged to Perdiccas, as the elder surviving brother ; but 
Pausanias, a prince of the blood royal, who had been exiled, disputed 
it with him. Happily for the new king, Iphicrates was then in that 
country, whither the Athenians had sent him to make the necessary pre- 
parations for besieging Amphipolis. Eurydice, hearing of his arrival, 
requested his assistance against Pausanias. When Iphicrates had ar- 
rived at the palace, and had seated himself, the afflicted queen, the bet- 
ter to excite his compassion, took her two children, Perdiccas and Phi- 
lip, and set the former in the arms, and the latter on the knees of Iphi- 
crates, and spoke thus — " Remember Iphicrates, that Amyntas, the 
father of these unhappy orphans, had always a love for your country, 
and adopted you for his son ; this double tie lays you under a double 
obligation," &c. Iphicrates, moved by this sight and discourse, ex- 
pelled the usurper, and restored the lawful sovereign. 

Perdiccas did not long continue in tranquillity. Ptolemy, a natural 
son of Amyntas, invaded his repose, and claimed the crown. The two 
brothers preferred their claim to Pelopidas, general of the Thebans, who 
determined in favour of Perdiccas. And the Theban, having thought 
it necessary to take pledges on both sides, to oblige the competitors to 
observe the treaty, among other hostages carried Philip with him to 
Thebes, where he resided several years. Eurydice, on her parting 
with this much beloved son, earnestly besought Pelopidas to procure 
him an education worthy of his birth. Pelopidas placed him with 
Epaminondas, who had a celebrated Pythagorean philosopher in his 

From whom was Philip descended? — What is related of Philip's sons ? — And 
what of Eurydice and Iphicrates ? — What occasioned Philip to spend several of 
hit* early years in Thebes ? 



THILIP OF MACEDON. 145 

house for the education of his son. It is probable that he bon<vwed 
from Epaminondas his activity and promptitude in war ; but with re- 
gard to the Theban's many other virtues which rendered him eminently 
great — his temperance, his justice, his magnanimity, and his clemency ; 
these qualities Philip did not receive from nature, nor did he acquire 
them by imitation. 

The Thebans were unconscious that they were then forming the most 
dangerous enemy of Greece. After Philip had spent nine or ten years 
in their city, the news of a revolution in Macedon made him resolve to 
leave Thebes clandestinely. He found the Macedonians had lost their 
king Perdiccas, who had been killed in battle by the Illyrians ; and he 
was as much surprised to find that they had as many enemies as neigh- 
bours. Macedonia at that time wanted a prince to head the government, 
and had only a child, Amyntas, the son of Perdiccas, and lawful heir 
of the crown. Philip governed the kingdom for some time, by the title 
of guardian to the prince ; but the subjects, justly alarmed, deposed the 
nephew in favour of the uncle. (B. C. 360.) Accordingly Philip, at 
twenty-four years of age, ascended the throne. 

The new king revived the desponding courage of the Macedonians, 
and reinstated and disciplined the army, in which he was inflexibly 
rigid. The Macedonian phalanx, which afterwards became so famous, 
was of his establishing. Philip, during the first years of his reign, 
employed his energies in triumphing over his competitors for the throne, 
in pacifying domestic divisions, and in repelling the attacks of foreign 
enemies. But he will now appear in another character. Sparta and 
Athens had weakened each other by their reciprocal divisions, which 
gave Thebes the opportunity of regaining its former granoV-nr. But the 
wars had weakened Thebes also, which gave Philip an occasion of 
aspiring, in his turn, to the sovereignty of Greece. And as a politician, 
he considered how he might extend his frontiers, reduce his neighbours, 
and introduce himself into the affairs of Greece, share in its intestine 
feuds, make himself its arbiter, join with one side to destroy the other, 
and obtain the empire over all. 

In the execution of this great design, he spared neither artifices, open 
force, presents, nor promises. He seized upon Amphipolis, and made 
it one of the strongest barriers in his kingdom. He possessed himself 
of Pydna and Potidea, and also of Cremides, which he called by his 
own name Philippi. It was near this city that he opened a gold mine, 
which every year produced upwards of 1,000 talents, that is, about 
114,000/. sterling, an^ Philip first caused gold to be coined there. By 
this fund he was enabled to maintain powerful armies, and to bribe 
persons of influence in the cities of Greece. It is said, that, consult- 
ing the oracle of Delphi, he received the following answer : — 
" Make coin thy weapons, and thou'lt conquer all." 

And he scrupled not to own that he had carried more places by money 
than by arms ; that he never forced a gate till after having attempted to 

On what occasion did Philip return to Macedon? — Was he the rightful heir to 
the throne ? — Did he not aspire to the sovereignty of Greece ? — What were the 
means he employed ? 
13 



l46 history op Greece. 

open it with a golden key ; and that he did not think any fortress im- 
pregnable into which a mule laden with silver could find entrance. 

Philip had married Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, by whom 
he had Alexander, surnamed the Great. Philip was absent from his 
kingdom at the time of his birth, and on the same day the news was 
brought him, he received information that he had carried the prize in 
the Olympic games, and that Parmenio, one of his generals, had gained 
a great victory over the Illyrians. The king was alarmed at so great a 
happiness, which the heathens deemed the omen of some mournful ca- 
tastrophe, and he exclaimed, "Great Jupiter, in return for so many 
Dlessings, send me some slight misfortune." 



CHAPTER 30. 
THE SACRED WAR. 

Discord, (B. C. 355,) which excited in the Greeks dispositions not 
very remote from open rupture, broke out with great violence upon ac- 
count of the Phocians. These people who inhabited the territories ad- 
jacent to Delphi, ploughed up certain lands that were sacred to Apollo, 
and which were thereby profaned. The neighbouring people exclaimed 
against them as guilty of sacrilege. The war that broke out on this 
occasion was called the Sacred War, as undertaken from a religious mo- 
tive. It lasted ten years. The people guilty of this profanation were 
summoned to appear before the Amphictyons, or states general of 
Greece ; and on investigation the Phocians were declared sacrilegious, 
and were sentenced to pay a heavy fine. On Sparta, also, they laid a 
fine for having seized the citadel of Thebes. 

Philomelus, one of their chief citizens, having proved from some 
verses of Homer that the sovereignty of Delphi belonged anciently to 
the Phocians, excited them to take up arms against the decree of the 
Amphictyons, and was appointed their general. He immediately ap- 
plied to Sparta, to engage them to his interest, as the Spartans were 
much disgusted at the sentence which that court had pronounced against 
themselves. Archedamus, one of the kings of Sparta, promised to as- 
sist them with money, and to furnish them secretly with troops. 

Philomelus began by attacking the temple of Delphi, of which he 
possessed himself without any difficulty. The Locrians, a people in 
the neighbourhood of Delphi, took up arms against him, and were de- 
feated in several encounters. Philomelus entered the temple, tore from 
the pillars the decree of the Amphictyons against the Phocians, and 
proclaimed throughout Greece that he had no design to seize the riches 
of the temples, and that his sole view was to restore to the Phocians 
their ancient rights and privileges. And as it was desirable to have a 
'sanction from the god who presided at Delphi, the priestess, terrified by 

Whom did Philip marry ? — What occurred at the birth of his son Alexander ? — 
What occasioned the sacred war? — What power did Philomelus prevail upon 
to aid hira ? — Of what temple did he possess himself? — What devastations did he 
make ? 



THE SACKED WAK. 147 

his menaces, replied "That the god permitted him to do whatever he 
should think proper." 

The Amphictyons now declared war against the Phocians, and most 
of the Greek nations became parties in the quarrel on one side or the 
other. The Boeotians, the Locrians, Thessalians and others opposed 
the Phocians, while Athens, Sparta and other cities of Peloponnesus 
joined them. Philomelus had not yet touched the treasures of the 
temple ; but he afterwards thought that they could not be better em- 
ployed than in the deity's defence. The Thebans having in a skirmish 
taken several prisoners, condemned them all to die as sacrilegious 
wretches. The Phocians did the same by way of reprisal. 

Philomelus, being closely pressed in an engagement, from which 
there was no retreating, threw himself from a rock and perished, to 
avoid the torments which would have been inflicted by his enemies. 
Onomarchus was his successor, and took upon himself the command of 
the forces. Philip thought it most for his interest to remain neuter. — 
It was consistent with his policy, who had but little regard for religion 
or the interests of Apollo, not to engage in a war by which he could reap 
no benefit. He was no doubt pleased to see both parties weaken each 
other. 

Being desirous of subduing Thrace, he besieged and took Methone 
and razed it. In this encounter he> ''-* Sn eye. Philip marched into 
Thessaly, which had implored his asxl^tance against the tyrants. Ono- 
marchus, in a second engagement with Philip, was slain, and his army 
entirely defeated. By the success of this expedition, Philip acquired 
the affection of the Thessalians, whose excellent cavalry, joined to the 
Macedonian phalanx, had afterwards so great a share in his victories 
and those of his son. 

Phayllus, who succeeded his brother Onomarchus, from the immense 
riches he had found in the temple, raised a numerous army, and sup- 
ported by the troops of the Lacedemonians, Athenians, and the other 
allies, he went into Boeotia and invaded the Thebans. Phayllus, 
seized with a sudden disorder, died, and was succeeded by Phalecus 
then very young, the son of Onomarchus. Mnaseas, a man of great 
experience, was appointed his counsellor. Phalecus, like his prede- 
cessor, having plundered the temple, and by that means enriched his 
friends, the Phocians became alarmed, and called those to account who 
had any concern with the public moneys. Upon this Phalecus was de- 
posed, and upon full inquiry it was found that there had been taken 
from the temple 10,000 talents, or about 1,500,000/. sterling. 

Philip now resolved to carry his arms into Phocis. (B. C. 352.) This 
was his first attempt to get footing in Greece. He had intended march- 
in o- towards Thermopylae, to possess himself of a pass which would 
have given him a free passage into Greece. The Athenians hastened 
to Thermopylae, and preoccupied the pass, which Philip did not dare to 
force, and he returned into Macedon. 



What states declared war against the Phocians? — What was the fatal end o< 
Philomelus ? — What city did Philip attack ? — What wound did he receive ? — Ot 
what sums had the temple been despoiled ?— En what attempt was Philip unsuo 
cessful? 



i48 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

The ambitious designs of Philip gave rise also to the orations of De- 
mosthenes. The Athenians became the king's most powerful opposers. 
But Athens at that time was not what it was in the days of the battles 
of Marathon and Salamis. They had no longer the same maxims, nor 
the same zeal for the public good. To those glorious days had suc- 
ceeded a fondness for repose, an indolence with regard to public affairs, 
an aversion to military fatigues, and a fondness for the profusion of the 
public treasures, in games and shows. 

Demosthenes exerted his eloquence to stimulate the Athenians to 
make a powerful resistance. This is the subject of his orations called 
his Philippics. Demades, on the contrary, bribed by Philip's gold, 
opposed the advice of Demosthenes, but in vain. Chares was sent 
with chosen troops for the protection of Olynthus ; but the year follow- 
ing, (B. C. 348,) Philip possessed himself of the place. Neither the 
succours nor the efforts of the Athenians could defend it against its 
domestic enemies. It was betrayed by two of its most eminent citi- 
zens, in actual employment at that time. 

CHAPTER 31. 

SIEGE OF PERINTHUS — BATTLE OF CILERONE A — BANISHMENT 
OF JESCHINES. 

Philip carried on the siege of Perinthus with great vigour. He had 
30,000 troops, and also military engines of all kinds. He had raised 
towers eighty cubits high, which far outstripped those of the Perinthi- 
ans, whose foundations he shook by subterraneous mines, and beat 
down their walls with his battering-rams. The inhabitants of Byzan- 
tium sent the Perinthians all the succours necessary. The Asiatic 
satraps, or governors, by the king's order, whose assistance the Athe- 
nians had requested, likewise threw forces into the place. Philip 
dreaded the power of the Athenians, and addressed to them an artful 
letter, which is a masterpiece in the original, so that what was said 
of Caesar might be justly applied to Philip, " that he handled the pen 
as well as he did the sword." His letter did him as much service as a 
good manifesto, and gave his pensioners in Athens a fine opportunity 
of justifying him to the people. 

Demosthenes, sensible how needful it was to erase as soon as possi- 
ble these impressions, ascended the tribunal, and boldly and firmly 
rebutted both Philip and his orators. At the very time this was de- 
bating, news was brought of the shameful reception Chares had met 
with in aiding the Byzantians ; and, as Chares was a general without 
great military knowledge, Phocion was appointed to the command of a 
body of fresh troops ; and the Byzantians, on his arrival, opened their 
gates to him with joy, and lodged his soldiers in their houses, as their 
twn brothers and children. 

What gave rise to the orations of Demosthenes? — What change had taken 
place in the Athenians ? — What orator opposed Demosthenes? — Describe Philip's 
siege of Perinthus, and his artful address to the Athenians. — Did not Demosthenes 
rebut Philip's orators? 



MACHINATIONS OF PHILIP 149 

Struck with the confidence reposed in them, the Athenian officers 
and soldiers behaved with prudence and modesty, and we.e entirely 
irreproachable in their conduct. Nor were they less admired for their 
courage ; and Philip was obliged to abandon his designs both on By- 
zantium and Perinthus, — and his being beaten out of the Hellespont 
diminished Philip's fame and glory. 

The Byzantians and Perinthians testified their gratitude to the peo- 
ple of Athens by a very honourable decree ; namely, that they might 
settle in their country, purchase lands, and enjoy all the privileges of 
citizens : they also granted them a distinguished place in their public 
shows, and the right of sitting both in the senate and the assembly of 
the people next to the pontiffs, &c. The inhabitants of Chersonesus, 
in full senate, made a similar decree, and, after a full expression of 
their gratitude, awarded a crown of gold, worth fifty talents, to their 
benefactors. 

Philip, having been driven from Byzantium and Perinthus, marched 
against Atheas, king of Scythia, and defeated him without difficulty. 
He got a great booty, not of gold and silver, the use and value of which 
the Scythians did not know, but of cattle and horses, and even of wo- 
men and children. At his return from Scythia, the Triballi, a people 
of Mcesia, disputed the pass with him, claiming part of the plunder. 
A severe battle ensued, in which great numbers on each side were slain. 
Philip himself was wounded in the thigh, and with the same thrust 
had his horse killed under him. 

The king of Macedon made overtures of peace, but Demosthenes was 
persuaded that Philip's view was only to amuse and deceive, and he 
prevented the Athenians listening to his proposals. Philip foresaw 
that he had now no alternative but by exciting the Thessalians and 
Thebans to break with Athens, for he could not yet attack that city 
either by sea or land. For the passage to Attica by land would be shut 
against him as long as the Thessalians should refuse to join him, and 
the Thebans should oppose him. 

By the machinations of his pensioners, he raised divisions in the 
Locrians of Amphissa. Their country was situated between iEtolia 
and Phocis ; and they were accused of having profaned a spot of sa- 
cred ground, by ploughing up the Cirrhsean fields, which lay very near 
the temple of Delphi. The reader has seen that the like cause of com- 
plaint occasioned the first sacred war. The affair was to be heard before 
the Amphictyons. By the oratory of iEschines, Philip was appointed, 
by the Amphictyons, general, to act with full power. 

Philip immediately assembled his forces, and possessed himself ot 
Elatea, the greatest city of Phocis, situated most happily for awing the 
Thebans, who now began to see their danger. The news spread terror 
through every part of Athens. By the power of Demosthenes' elo- 
quence the Thebans made a common cause with the Athenians, and 



Did not the Athenians cause Philip to abandon his designs both at Byzantium 
and Perinthus? — By what decree did they show their gratitude? — Against whom 
did Philip next march? — Did Demosthenes oppose Philip's hollow truce? — Of 
what crime were the Locrians accused ? — What fear did Philip's victories excite 

13* 



150 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Philip entered Boeotia with all his forces. The united armies of the 
Athenians and Thebans encamped near Chaeronea, a city of Bceotia. 
But there were no leaders that could be opposed to Philip. A battle 
ensued, and more than 1,000 Athenians were left upon the field, and 
above 2,000 taken prisoners. The loss was as great on the Theban 
side. The bones of such as were killed in the battle of Chaeronea were 
brought to Athens, and received honourable interment. Demosthenes 
was appointed to compose the eulogy of those brave men.* 

It was the very year of the battle of Chaeronea, and two years before 
the death of Philip, that vEschines drew up an accusation against Ctes- 
iphon, or rather against Demosthenes ; but the cause was not pleaded 
till seven or eight years after. No cause ever excited so much curi- 
osity, or was pleaded with so much pomp. People flocked from all 
parts, says Cicero, to be witness between these two orators ; and these 
orations have been considered as the masterpieces of antiquity; espe- 
cially that of Demosthenes. iEschines was deservedly banished on 
account of this rash accusation of Ctesiphon. He therefore removed to 
Rhodes, where he opened a school of eloquence, the fame of which 
continued for many ages. He began his lectures with the two orations 
that occasioned his banishment. Great encomiums were given to them ; 
but when the Rhodians heard those of Demosthenes, their plaudits and 
acclamations were redoubled ; and it was then he spoke those words so 
laudable in the mouth of a rival, " But what applauses would you not 
have bestowed, had you heard Demosthenes himself deliver them !" 

It is worthy of remembrance that when iEschines left Athens to em- 
bark for Rhodes, Demosthenes ran after him, and forced him to accept 
a purse of money. On this occasion iEschines exclaimed, " How will 
it be possible for me not to regret a country in which I leave an enemy 
more generous than I can hope to find friends elsewhere ?" 

CHAPTER 32. 

PHILIP IS DECLARED GENERALISSIMO OF THE GREEKS AGAINST 
THE PERSIANS — HIS DEATH. 

The battle of Chaeronea may be said to have enslaved Greece. It 
gained for Philip the object he had long had in view — that of being the 
generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians. He now made pre- 
parations to invade that empire ; and forwarded two of his generals, 
Attalus and Parmenio, to Asia Minor. Philip consulted the gods to 
know what would be the event. The priestess replied, " The victim 
is already crowned, his end draws nigh, and he will soon be sacrificed." 
Philip interpreted the oracle in his own favour, though the ambiguity 
ought to have kept him in some suspense. After this he offered up a 

* Demosthenes, in his oration against Leptines, observes that the Athenians were 
the only people who caused funeral orations to be spoken in honour of those who lost 
their lives in the defence of their country. 

What resulted from the battle of Chaeronea? — Describe the orations of Demos- 
thenes and iEschines, and the public curiosity they excited. — Relate (he interview 
between Demosthenes and iEschines. — What was the Priestess s reply to Philip? 



DEATH OF PHILIP. • 151 

solemn sacrifice to the gods ; and prepared to celebrate, with incredible 
magnificence, the nuptials of Cleopatra, his daughter, with Alexander, 
king of Epirus, and brother to Olympias his queen. The day after the 
nuptials, games and shows were solemnized ; and as these formed a 
part of their religious worship, statues of the gods were carried in it, in 
one of which Philip himself was represented as a god. 

The hour for his leaving the palace arrived, and he went forth in a 
white robe, and advanced with an air of majesty, amidst acclamations, 
towards the theatre. His guards marched before and behind him, leav- 
ing a considerable space for the better view of him by the spectators. 
But all this festivity and pomp ended in the murder of Philip. The 
king had refused to do an act of justice towards Pausanias, a young 
nobleman, and one of the chief officers of his life guard. He therefore, 
choosing the instant of this ceremony to put his bloody design in exe- 
cution, stabbed the king with a dagger, and laid him dead at his feet. 
The assassin had prepared horses ready for his escape ; but he was 
overtaken and torn to pieces on the spot. Thus died Philip, at forty- 
six years of age, after having reigned twenty-four. (B. C. 336.) When 
the news of Philip's death arrived, the Athenians abandoned themselves 
to the transports of immoderate joy. 

Demosthenes is said to have appeared in public at Athens, crowned 
with a wreath of flowers, urging the Athenians to offer sacrifices and 
to thank the gods for the good news ; an action quite out of character. 

Alexander was born the first year of the lOGth Olympiad, (B. C. 
356,) the same day the celebrated temple of Diana in Ephesus, which 
had been called one of the seven wonders of the world, was burned. 
It had been built in the name and at the expense of all Asia Minor. 
Its length was 425 feet, and its breadth 2-20. It was supported by 
127 columns, 60 feet high. One Erostratus had fired the temple on 
purpose ; and being put to the torture, he confessed it was to hand 
down his name to posterity. 

The passion which prevailed most in Alexander, even from his early 
years, was ambition, and an ardent desire of glory. Philip valued 
himself upon his eloquence, and the beauty of his style; and he had 
the vanity to have engraved on his coins the several victories he had 
won at the Olympic games ; but it was not to this his son aspired ; 
for being asked one day whether he would not be present to dispute 
the prize (for he was very swift of foot), he replied, " He would, if 
kings were to be his antagonists." Alexanders judgment was said to 
be exceedingly mature for his years. He had several preceptors ; 
among these were Leonidas, a person of severe morals, and Aristotle, 
the most learned philosopher of the age, to whom was entrusted the 
chief care of his education. 

So sensible was Philip of the treasure he possessed in the person of 
Aristotle, that he settled a considerable stipend upon him, and even re- 
built and adorned Stagira, the native place of the philosopher. Nor 

By whom and on what occasion was Philip assassinated? — What temple was 
burned on Alexander's birth ? — Who were his preceptors ? — What reward had 
Aristotle ? 



152 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

was Alexander less sensible of his high value. " He was indebted," 
he said, " to the one for living, and the other for living- well ;" and 
nistory informs us that the progress of the pupil was equal to the abili- 
ties of the preceptor. Alexander's admiration of Homer's works was 
very great, and we are told that after the battle of Arbela, when the 
Macedonians had found among the spoils of Darius a gold box enriched 
with precious stones, in which were contained the prince's perfumes, 
Alexander ordered that the box should be employed for no other pur- 
pose than to hold Homer's Poems ; which he believed to be the most 
perfect and the most precious productions of the human mind. 

There had been sent from Thessaly to Philip, a very noble warlike 
horse called Bucephalus, valued by the owner at thirteen talents, about 
1,900/. sterling; but he appeared so restive and fiery that no one dared 
to mount him ; and Philip was about to return him to the owner. 
Alexander regretted that so fine a creature should be lost for want of a 
rider, and offered to mount him himself. His father permitted him. 
After some manoeuvres, he mounted Bucephalus, and animated him by 
degrees to his full speed. The king and attendants, trembling with 
fear, followed them with their eyes, in breathless silence ; but when 
the prince returned, having run the first heat, the courtiers endeavoured 
to outvie each other in their applauses ; and Philip shedding tears of 
joy, said, " My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for Macedon 
is below thy merit." 

CHAPTER 33. 

ALEXANDER ASCENDS THE THRONE; AND IS DECLARED GENER- 
ALISSIMO OF THE GREEKS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 

Darius and Alexander began to reign the same year ; the latter was 
but twenty years of age when he ascended the throne. His first care 
was to solemnize with much pomp the funeral obsequies of his father, 
and to revenge his death. Upon his accession to the throne, he saw 
himself surrounded with extreme dangers; for though Philip had made 
conquests among the barbarous nations, and had subdued all Greece, 
yet the minds of the vanquished had not been yet calmed and moulded 
into subjection. 

The Macedonians, reflecting on the precarious situation of things, 
advised Alexander to relinquish the conquest of Greece, and to bring 
the Barbarians more firmly under his yoke by gentle and conciliatory 
methods. Alexander did not listen to these timorous counsels ; firmly 
persuaded that should he relax in one point, all his neighbours would 
fall upon him. He therefore first marched against the Barbarians, cross- 
ing the Danube, and defeating the Triballi in a great battle, and making 
the Getse fly at his approach. While Alexander was thus employed, 
all the cities of Greece, which were animated by Demosthenes, formed 
a powerful alliance against that prince. Alexander now marched to- 



What poems did Alexander treasure in Darius's gold box? — Relate Alexander's 
encounter with the horse Bucephalus. — What difficulties had Alexander to en- 
counter? — Against whom did he first march? 



ALEXANDER. 153 

wards Greece; passed Thermopylae and appeared suddenly in Bceotia. 
A. great battle was fought, in which the Thebans were surrounded, and 
the city was taken and plundered. 

The city experienced dreadful calamities on this occasion. Some 
Thracians, having pulled down the house of Timoclea, a virtuous lady, 
carried off her goods and treasures. Their captain, having seized the 
lady and insulted her, inquired whether she had not concealed much 
gold and silver. Timoclea, animated by revenge, replied that she 
had hid some in the garden, and that she had thrown it into a well. 
The officer drew near, and he stooping down to examine its depth, she 
thrust him in, and killed him by great stones thrown upon him. She 
.was instantly seized and bound in chains, and carried to Alexander. 
The prince, perceiving by her mien that she was a woman of quality 
and dignity, asked who she was. Timoclea replied, " I am sister to 
Teagenes, who fought against Philip, and who was killed in the battle 
of Chaeronea." The prince admiring the generous answer of the lady, 
and still more the action she had done, gave orders that she should re- 
tire wherever she pleased with her children. 

Alexander now debated in council how to act with regard to Thebes ; 
and notwithstanding Cleades made a powerful oration in favour of the 
city, it was doomed to fall, and was destroyed. However, he set at 
liberty the priests, the descendants of Pindar, the poet who had done 
so much honour to Greece, with such as had opposed the revolt, &c. 
The Athenians were so sensibly afflicted at the sad disaster which had 
befallen Thebes, that, being about to solemnize the festival of the great 
mysteries, they suspended them upon account of their extreme grief; 
and they received with great humanity all those that had fled from the 
battle and the plunder of Thebes, and made Athens their asylum. 

Alexander's sudden arrival in Greece had abated the haughtiness 
of the Athenians and extinguished the vehemence of Demosthenes. A 
deputation was therefore sent to Alexander to implore his clemency. 
Demosthenes was among them ; but he had no sooner arrived at Mount 
Cithgeron, than, dreading the anger of that prince, he quitted the em- 
bassy and returned home. The prince sent immediately to Athens, 
requiring the citizens to deliver up to him ten orators, whom he sup- 
posed to have been the chief instruments in forming the league w T hich 
Philip his father had defeated at Clweronea. It was on this occasion 
that Demosthenes related to the people the fable of the wolves and 
dogs. " The wolves one day," said he, " told the sheep that, in case 
they desired to be at peace with them, they must deliver up to them 
their dogs, which were their guard." The application was easy and 
natural, especially with respect to the orators, whose duty it was to 
watch and protect the flock. 

In this serious dilemma of the Athenians, the king waived his 
demand, and required that Chridemus only, who was a native of 
Eubcea, should be sent into banishment. As for the Athenians, he 

What was Alexander's generous treatment to Timoclea? — When Thebes was 
destroyed, whom did Alexander respect? — What had the fable of Demosthenes to 
do with Alexander ? 



154 HISTORY OF CREECE. 

expressed a particular regard for them — exhorted them to keep a 
watchful eye over the transactions of the states ; because, he observed, 
in case of his death, their city was to give laws to the rest of Greece. 
He summoned the assembly of the several states at Corinth, to obtain 
from them the same supreme command against the Persians that had 
been granted to his father. No diet ever debated on a more important 
subject — it was the western world deliberating on the ruin of the east- 
ern. To form such a design required a prince bold and enterprising — 
one that was not to be intimidated by dangers, and above all, one that 
had the supreme authority over all the states of Greece, — and such 
a prince was Alexander. The deliberations of the assembly were, 
therefore, very short ; and that prince was unanimously appointed gen- 
eral issimo against the Persians. 

Diogenes, the cynic of Sinope, was then at Corinth, and Alexander 
passing by saw him lay down in the sun. The prince, surprised to see 
so famous a philosopher reduced to such poverty, asked whether ho 
wanted any thing] Diogenes replied, " Yes, that you would stand a 
little out of my sunshine." This answer raised the indignation of the 
courtiers, but the monarch was struck with the philosopher's indepen- 
dent mind. " Were I not Alexander," he said, " I would be Diogenes." 
All, or nothing, presents us with the true image of Alexander and Di- 
ogenes. How great soever that prince might think himself, he could 
not but suppose that he was then inferior to a man to whom he could 
give, and from whom he could take nothing. 

Before he set out for Asia, Alexander consulted the oracle of Apollo, 
and he happened to arrive at it on one of those days which are called 
unlucky ; accordingly the priestess refused to go to the temple. But 
Alexander, who would have no refusal, took her forcibly by the arm, 
and was leading her to the temple, when she cried out, " My son, thou 
art irresistible." This was all he desired. He interpreted it as spoken 
by the oracle, and set out for Macedonia to make preparations for his 
great expedition. 

CHAPTER 34. 
ALEXANDER'S EXPEDITION. 

Alexander called a council of the grandees of his court and chief 
officers, to deliberate on his intended expedition against Persia, in which 
all concurred. Some few, however, recommended his first making 
choice of his consort to secure himself a successor; advice which 
Alexander did not choose to follow. He offered up splendid sacri- 
fices to the gods, and caused to be celebrated at Dire, a city of Ma- 
cedonia, scenical games in honour of Jupiter and the muses. He 
had a tent raised large enough to contain a hundred tables, on which 
nine hundred covers might be laid. To this- feast were invited the 
princes, ambassadors, generals, and officers. 

Before he set out, he settled the affairs of Macedon, ovei which he 



What, deliberation was commenced at Corinth ? — What of Diogenes !- What was 
Alexander's reply? — What reply did the priestess give to Alexander?- -What was 
the result of Alexander's council? 



ALEXANDERS EXPEDITION. 155 

appointed Antipater, as viceroy, with 12,000 foot, and nearly the same 
number of horse. He quitted Macedon, for Asia, in the spring. His 
army consisted of little more than thirty thousand foot, and four or five 
thousand horse, but they were all veteran troops, well disciplined, and 
inured to fatigues. He arrived at Sestos after twenty days march. — 
The greater part of his army crossed from thence to Abydos. by the 
assistance of 160 galleys, and several flat-bottomed vessels. When he 
had gained the shores of Asia, he erected altars to Jupiter, Minerva, 
and Hercules, for so propitious a descent. 

So greatly did he depend on the success of his arms, and the rich 
spoils of Asia, that he made but little provision for so great an ex- 
pedition ; and he inspired his soldiers with so much courage and se- 
curity, that they seemed to march, not to precarious war, but to certain 
victory. Being arrived at Lampsacus, which he was determined to 
destroy, to punish the rebellion of the inhabitants, Anaximines, a native 
of that place, came to him. The king, suspecting his business, and to 
be beforehand with him, swore that he would never grant his request: 
" the favour I have to desire of you," said Anaximines, " is, that you 
would destroy Lampsacus." By this evasion, the intercessor saved 
his city. 

From thence Alexander arrived at Ilion, and paid great honour to the 
manes of Achilles, and caused games to be celebrated round his tomb. 
He admired the double felicity of that renowned Grecian, in having 
found, during his life, a faithful friend in Patrocles, and, after his 
death, a herald in Homer, worthy the greatness of his exploits. From 
thence Alexander advanced to the bank of Granicus, a river of Phrygia. 
The Persian satrap waited his coming on the other side, firmly resolved 
to dispute his passage. The Persian army consisted of 100,000 foot, 
and 10,000 horse. Memnon, who was a Rhodian, and commanded 
under Darius all the coast of Asia, advised the generals not to venture 
a battle, but to lay waste the country, thereby to starve Alexander's 
army. But Arsites, a Phrygian satrap, opposed this opinion. 

The two armies continued for some time in sight of each other on 
the banks of the river, as if dreading the event. The Macedonians, 
whose cavalry was vastly inferior in number, were severely wounded 
while crossing ; and, after having lost their first ranks, began to give 
ground. But Alexander reinforced them with his best troops, headed 
by himself, after which the whole army followed and attacked the 
Persians on all sides. The conflict was long, and the slaughter great. 
A considerable number of the Persian commanders were left dead on 
the spot. Arsites fled into Phrygia ; 20,000 foot and 2,500 horse were 
killed in the engagement, on the side of the Persians. 

This victory had all the happy consequences that could be expected 
from it. Sardis surrendered to Alexander; and, arriving at Ephesus, 
he restored its popular form of government. He assigned to the temple 

Who was appointed to the care of Macedon ? — With what force did he set out 
for Persia? — By what artifice was Lampsacus saved ? — What homage did Alexan- 
der pay to old Troy? — What victory obtained on the banks of the Granicus ? — 
What surrenders followed the victory ? 



156 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

of Diana the tributes which were paid to the kings of Persia. He of 
fered sacrifices to that goddess, and solemnized her mysteries with the 
utmost pomp. The cities of Trallis and Magnesia also waited upon 
him with the keys of those places. He then marched for Miletus, in 
which Memnon had shut himself up, and, after a powerful resistance, 
the city capitulated. 

Alexander next marched into Caria, and laid siege to Halicarnassus, 
in which Memnon had taken shelter, and with vast difficulty demolished 
its fortifications. Memnon, finding it impossible to hold out any longer, 
abandoned the city by sea, and took with him most of the surviving in- 
habitants, and conveyed them to the adjacent island of Cos. Several 
kings of Asia Miner submitted voluntarily to Alexander, among whom 
was Mithridates, king of Pontus. 

When Alexander went into winter quarters, he permitted many of 
his soldiers to return to Macedonia, to spend their winter with their 
wives and families, upon condition of their returning in the spring. 
The next year the king began the campaign very early. He directed 
his march to Phaselis, a city situated between Lycia and Pamphylia ; 
and, during his residence in this neighbourhood, he discovered and 
crushed a conspiracy. From thence he proceeded to Coeloenoe, which, 
after holding out some time, opened their gates to him. He then pro- 
ceeded to Phrygia, the capital of which was called Gordium, the noted 
residence of king Midas. Having taken this city, he was desirous of 
seeing the famous chariot to which the Gordian knot was tied with so 
much art that it was impossible to discover where the strings began or 
ended. According to an ancient tradition of the country, an oracle had 
foretold that the man who could untie it should possess the empire of 
Asia. Alexander, after many fruitless trials, cut it with his sword, and 
thus either eluded or fulfilled the oracle. 

CHAPTER 35. 
BATTLE OF ISSUS— SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF TYRE. 

In the mean time, Darius was making preparations for a vigorous 
defence ; and Memnon advised the king to carry the war into Macedo- 
nia, which would compel Alexander to return home to defend his own 
country. Darius -approved the counsel ; accordingly Memnon was ap- 
pointed admiral of the fleet and captain-general of the forces, and he had 
made himself master of Chios and Lesbos. Preparing to march from 
thence into Eubcea, he died before Mitylene, and the enterprise was 
abandoned. 

Darius's whole refuge was now in the armies of the east ; and not 
placing confidence in the skill of his generals, he resolved to command 
in person, and he appointed Babylon for the rendezvous of his army, 
where, upon being mustered, they amounted to four, five, or six hun- 
dred thousand men. 



What happened to Memnon at Halicarnassus ?— Relate the circumstance of the 
Gordian knot. — What did Memnon advise ? — And how was the advice defeated? 
— Where lay Darius's army? — What the amount? 



BATTLE OF ISSUS. _57 

Alexander next subdued Paphlagonia and Cappadocia ; and having 
thence heard of Memnon's death, he was confirmed in his resolution of 
marching- immediately into the provinces of Upper Asia. He entered 
into Cilicia, and arrived at the country called Cyrus's camp. Directing 
his course to Tarsus, which led through a very narrow strait, through 
which it was Alexander's good fortune to pass without interruption, 
though, had it been properly guarded, it might have proved an almost 
insurmountable barrier to him, — he reached Tarsus, through which city 
the cold Cydnus runs. In this river Alexander, while suffused with 
sweat, bathed. He was immediately seized with a violent shivering, 
which for some time endangered his life, but, by the prescriptions of 
his physician, he recovered. 

During this interval Darius was on his march, full of confidence in 
the number of his troops. Instead of availing himself of the plains of 
Assyria, which his situation afforded him, he resolved to march through 
narrow passes, where his cavalry and the number of his troops, only 
encumbered each other. There was, at this time, in the army of Da- 
rius, one Charidemus, an Athenian, a man of great experience in mili- 
tary affairs. Darius questioned him as to his opinion of the war. 
Charidemus, who had been brought up in the bosom of liberty, and for- 
getting that he was in a country of slavery gave his honest opinion, 
which cost him his life ; and while he was led to execution, he ex- 
claimed, " My avenger is at hand, and he will soon punish you for 
despising my counsel." 

Darius advanced with his troops towards the Euphrates, and his 
train was encumbered with women, princesses, concubines, eunuchs, 
and domestics of both sexes, as was the custom of the country. Nothing 
could exceed the splendid magnificence of the king. His chariot was 
enriched with images of the gods in gold and silver. He was clothed 
in a vest of purple, glittering with gold and precious stones : around 
his waist he wore a golden girdle, from which his scimitar hung, and 
on his head a tiara or mitre. Surrounded with this mighty pomp, the 
Persian approached Alexander ; and when in the plains of Assyria, the 
Grecian commanders that were in his army advised the latter to wait 
the coming of the enemy. 

The Persian courtiers, on the contrary, advised Darius to attack the 
Macedonians immediately in the narrow passes and defiles to prevent 
their escape. Darius, therefore, sent his treasures and most precious 
moveables to Damascus, a city of Syria, under a small convoy, and 
marched the main body of his army towards Cilicia, and entered it by 
the pass of Amanus. His queen, and mother, with the princesses, his 
daughters, and the little prince, his son, followed the army. The battle 
was fought near the city of Issus, which the mountains bounded on one 
side, and the sea on the other. Through the middle of the plain ran 
the river Pinarius, which separated the two armies. Both sides fought 
with the utmost bravery ; the battle became a close fight — sword in 



In what river did Alexander bathe ? — During this time what course did Darius 
take ? — How was Darius's army encumbered ? — What advice did Darius reject? 
— • Where was the battle fought ? 
14 



153 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

hand, and a dreadful slaughter ensued. The routing of the Persian 
cavalry completed the defeat of the army. Darius, when he saw the 
left wing broke, fled in his chariot, till the ruggedness of the roads in- 
duced him to mount the horse of his armour-bearer; but his mother, 
wife, and children, fell into the hands of Alexander, who treated them 
with great respect and tenderness. The consequence of this victory 
was, that all Syria submitted to the conqueror. 

Alexander sent a message to the queens to inform them that he was 
coming to pay them a visit. He entered the tent, accompanied only 
by Hephaestion. They were of the same age — but Hephsestion was 
taller, so that Darius's mother took him at first for the king; but some 
captive eunuchs showing them Alexander, Sysigambis fell prostrate and 
begged his pardon, hoping, that having never seen him, would plead 
her apology. The king, raising her from the ground, replied, "Dear 
mother, you are not mistaken, for he also is an Alexander!" a fine ex- 
pression which does honour to them both. " The princesses and their 
daughters," says Plutarch, "were in Alexander's camp, not as in that 
of an enemy, but as in a sacred temple, and a sanctuary assigned for 
the asylum of chastity." After the first visit of Alexander, which was 
a respectful and ceremonious one, he, to avoid exposing himself to the 
danger of human frailty, never paid them a second visit. 

After he had consecrated three altars on the river Pinarius, the first 
to Jupiter, the second to Hercules, and the third to Minerva, as so many 
monuments of his victory, Alexander sent Parmenio to Damascus to 
take possession of Darius's immense treasure, which was deposited in 
that place. He next marched into Phoenicia : the citizens of Byblos 
opened their gates to him, but no people with more pleasure than the 
Sidonians ; and he permitted Hephsestion to elect, as king, whomsoever 
of the Sidonians he found worthy of so exalted a station. Hephsestion 
conferred it on Abdolonymus, a poor descendant of the royal family. 
Tyre, entitled the queen of the sea, alone remained to be subdued, and 
it made a defence for seven months of the most determined character. 
The city was at last taken by storm, and a dreadful slaughter ensued. 
The conqueror offered up a sacrifice to Hercules on its ruins. The number 
of prisoners amounted to thirty thousand, who were all sold. The loss 
of the Macedonians was inconsiderable. 

While carrying on the siege of Tyre, Alexander received a second 
letter from Darius, offering him ten thousand talents as a ransom for 
the captive princesses, and also his daughter Statira in marriage, with 
all the country he had conquered, as far as the Euphrates, &c. Alex- 
ander summoned a council, in which Parmenio was of opinion that 
those offers should be accepted ; declaring that " he would comply with 
them were he Alexander." " And so would I," replied Alexander, 
" were I Parmenio." He therefore returned the following answer : 
" That he wanted not the money — and that it did not become him to 

Where fled Darius? — What befel his wife, &c. — What occurred in Alexander's 
visit to the queens? — What altars did Alexander consecrate? — What was Darius's 
letter, and Alexander's reply? 



CAPTURE OF GAZA. 159 

offer what he did not possess, and that a battle would soon determine 
&c." Upon receiving this answer Darius lost all hopes of an accom 
modation, and prepared for war. 

CHAPTER 36. 
BATTLE OF ARBELA — DEATH OF DARIUS. 

From Tyre, Alexander marched to Jerusalem, firmly resolved to show 
it no favour, it not having supplied him with provisions in besieging 
Tyre. But on entering Jerusalem he was met by the high priest in 
his robes, whom he had seen in a dream, dressed in like manner, two 
years before. He was struck with awe at the sight. The high priest 
showed him the prophecy of Daniel, wherein his conquests were fore- 
told. Alexander, in consequence, paid him particular respect, and 
spared the Jews the experience of that cruelty with which he had fully 
resolved to punish them for their disobedience to his commands. 

He had scarcely left Jerusalem when the Samaritans waited on him, 
humbly intreating him to visit their temple, which visit he declined, 
and marched towards Gaza, a place of great strength, and defended 
with great vigour by Betis, one of Darius's eunuchs. This was also 
taken, and it opened to him the whole country of Egypt, of which he 
soon became master. Exasperated at its holding out so long, and his 
receiving two wounds, he treated the governor, inhabitants, and soldiers, 
with a barbarity absolutely inexcusable ; for he cut ten thousand men 
to pieces, and sold all the rest, with their wives and children, for slaves. 
Betis, the governor, he put to death with singular cruelty. He ordered 
a hole to be made through his heels, when a rope being put through 
them, and this tied to a chariot, he ordered his soldiers to drag Betis 
round the city till he died. 

Having left a garrison in Gaza, Alexander turned the whole power 
of his arms against Egypt. On arriving at Pelusium, he found a great 
number of Egyptians, who had assembled to recognize him as their 
sovereign. The hatred of these people to the Persians was so great, 
that they cared but little who should be their king, provided he could 
rescue them from Persian insolence and indignity. Mazaeus, who com- 
manded in Memphis, opened the gates of the city to the conqueror, and 
gave up 800 talents, about $700,000, and all the king's furniture. Thus 
Alexander, without opposition, possessed himself of all Egypt. 

At Memphis he formed a design of visiting the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, built in honour of Ham, the son of Noah, and situated twelve 
days' journey distant, in the midst of the sandy des>erts of Libya. A 
ridiculous vanity was the motive of this journey. Being desirous of 
passing for a hero, he was determined to have some god for his father, 
and having fixed upon Jupiter Ammon, he bribed the priests to his pur- 
pose. In passing from Memphis to the sea, he observed, opposite the 



What prophecy did the High Priest of Jerusalem show Alexander? — What bar- 
barities occurred at Gaza? — Who welcomed Alexander at Palusium? — What tern 
pie did he visit? — And for what purpose? 



160 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

sland of Pharos, a spot well situated for the erection of a city. This 
city lie called after his own name, and it afterwards rose to he the capital 
of the kingdom. As its harbour was very commodious, having the 
Mediterranean on one side, and the Nile and the Red Sea in its neigh- 
bourhood, it drew all the traffic of the east and west, and became one 
of the most flourishing cities in the universe. 

The king being come to the temple, the senior priest delared him to 
be the son of Jupiter, which appellation Alexander accepted with joy, 
and acknowledged Jupiter as his father. The priest also assured him 
that he should be monarch of the universe. The sacrifice being ended, 
he offered magnificent presents to the god, nor were the priests for- 
gotten who had been so faithful to his interest. 

Swelled with the splendid title of son of Jupiter, and fancying him 
self raised above the human species, he returned from his journey as 
from a triumph. From that time, in all his letters and decrees, he 
styled himself, " Alexander, king, son of Jupiter Jlmmon." 

Varro observes, that, at the time the king built Alexandria, the use 
of papyrus for writing was found in Egypt. To hasten the building 
of his new city, and in order to people it, he invited thither the Jews, 
and allowed them very advantageous conditions ; not only granting 
them the free exercise of their religion, but putting them on the same 
footing with the Macedonians whom he settled there. 

Alexander set out from thence to meet Darius ; he crossed the Eu- 
phrates at Thapsacus, and continued his journey to the Tigris, where 
he expected to come up with the enemy. Darius prepared himself for 
battle. He assembled in Babylon an army, half as numerous again as 
that of Issus, and marched it towards Nineveh. His forces covered all 
the plains of Mesopotamia. With such difficulty and hazard did Alex- 
ander's troops cross the Tigris, that had the Persians known how to 
conquer, the Macedonians might have been cut to pieces. Darius now 
renewed his proposal to Alexander, who returned a haughty answer. 

There was a great difference between the two armies in point of 
numbers, but more so with regard to courage. That of Darius consisted 
of at least 600,000 foot, and 40,000 horse ; and the other of no more 
than 40,000 foot, and 7,000 or 8,000 horse. This was the last great 
and decisive battle which Alexander fought against the Persians. It 
took place near the town of Arbela. The Persians fought desperately, 
and victory was for a long time doubtful ; but it was at last decided in 
favour of the valour and high discipline of the Macedonians. The 
Persians lost 300,000 ; the Macedonians not more than 1,200, most of 
whom were horsemen. This engagement was fought about two years 
after the battle of Issus. 

Darius, after his defeat, rode with few attendants towards the river 
Lycus, and from thence fled towards Media, over the Armenian moun- 
tains. He took this way, supposing that Alexander would proceed 



What effect had the priest's declaration on him ? — For what purpose, and when 
first was the Papyrus used in Egypt? — What course did Alexander next take? — 
Describe the numbers in each army. — Where was the decisive battle fought? — 
Whither did Darius fly after his defeat? 



DESTRUCTION OF THE SPARTAN POWER. l6l 

owards Babylon and Susa, and because a numerous army could no* 
pursue him by this road. From Babylon Alexander entered the pro- 
vince of Sitacena, and thence proceeded to Susa and Persepolis. While 
at Persepolis, the king heard of Darius's arrival at Ecbatana, the capi- 
tal of Media, and was resolved to pursue him ; but on his arrival there, 
he found that Darius had left that city five days before ; and in his flight 
he was assassinated by Bessus, one of his own satraps. Thus termi- 
nated, 330 years before Christ, the great Persian empire, which had 
subsisted 209 years, from the time of Cyrus the Great, till it submitted 
to the all-powerful arms of Alexander. 

Darius was about fifty years of age, six of which he had reigned 
He was a gentle and pacific prince ; his reign having been unsullied 
with injustice or cruelty. His death did not prevent Alexander from 
pursuing Bessus, who had withdrawn into Bactriana, where he had 
assumed the title of king, by the name of Artaxerxes. Before Alexan- 
der's arrival, Spitamines, Bessus's chief confidant, formed a conspiracy 
against him, and putting him in chains, presented him to Alexander, 
who delivered him over to Oaxartes, Darius's brother, to suffer all the 
ignominy he deserved. 

CHAPTER 37. 
DEATH OF CLITUS — EXPEDITION TO INDIA. 

While these things passed in Asia, w T e must notice some tumults 
which broke out in Greece and Macedonia. Memnon, whom Alexan- 
der had sent into Thrace, having revolted there, and thereby drawn the 
forces of Antipater on that side, the Lacedsemonians thought this a 
proper opportunity to throw off the Macedonian yoke, for which pur- 
pose Agis, their king, advanced with an army of 20,000 foot and 2,000 
horse. The Macedonian army under Antipater was twice that number. 
Victory declared for the Macedonians ; and Agis, intrepid and invinci- 
ble to the last, oppressed by numbers, died sword in hand. This vic- 
tory not only ruined the power of Sparta, but also of its allies. 

Alexander, insatiable for victory and conquest, still marched forward 
in search of new nations to subdue, and, after having suffered much by 
long and dangerous marches, he advanced to the Jaxarthes. Not far 
from this river the barbarians, rushing suddenly from their mountains, 
attacked Alexander's forces. The king in repulsing them received a 
wound in the leg. They acknowledged themselves subdued by his 
unparalleled bravery, and he accepted their homage. After this he set 
out upon his march in a litter, on account of his wound, and arrived at 
Maracanda, the capital of Sogdiana, which he took. While here, there 
came an embassy to him from the Scythians, expressing their submis- 
sion. The last city to which he marched in Persia, was Cyropolis. 
It had been built by Cyrus, after whose name it had been called. 

What was the age of Darius ? — What was his character ? — What troubles broke 
out in Greece and Macedonia? — With whom did Alexander next engage? — Was 
he not wounded ? 

14* 



162 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

After these conquests, Alexander returned to Jaxarthes, where he 
surrounded the whole spot of ground which his army had covered, 
built a city thereon, and called it Alexandria. All things being now 
restored to a profound tranquillity, there remained but one strong hold, 
called Petra Oxiana, or the rock of Oxus, which was strongly defended. 
The king, after viewing the works, was some time in suspense whether 
he should besiege it ; for nature itself seemed to fortify this rock so as 
to render it absolutely impregnable. He therefore selected a few moun- 
taineers from his army, and sent them to gain the heights, by which 
means he possessed himself of the place. 

From hence he advanced to Maracanda, to the government of which 
he appointed his friend Clitus ; and the evening before his departure 
he was invited to an entertainment by the king. Alexander, heated 
with wine, began to celebrate his own exploits, and to depreciate the 
warlike acts of his father. Clitus, who was also inebriated, extolled 
the deeds of Philip before those of his son, and even repeated verses 
lauding that prince. Alexander, incensed, struck him with a javelin, 
and laid him dead at his feet, crying out at the same time, " Go now 
to Philip, to Parmenio, and to Attalus." 

The king's anger being, in a manner, extinguished on a sudden, by 
the blood of Clitus, his crime displayed itself in the most dreadful light. 
He threw himself upon his friend's body, and would have despatched 
himself with the same javelin, had not his attendants prevented him. 
He passed that night and the next day in tears, and continued speech- 
less, except giving utterance to deep sighs, groans, and lamentations. 

Alexander soon after entered the country of the Sacse, which he 
overran and laid waste. Oaxartes received him in his palace, and in- 
vited him to a sumptuous banquet, in which he displayed all the mag- 
nificence of the barbarians. He had a daughter called Roxana, a young 
lady whose exquisite beauty was heightened by all the charms of wit 
and sense. Alexander found her charms irresistible, and made her his 
wife. 

Alexander now bent his whole thoughts to carrying the war into 
India. That country was considered as the richest in the world, not 
only in gold, but also in pearls and precious stones. He - marched for 
this enterprise at the head of 120,000 men. But, previously to setting 
out, he revealed the design he had so long meditated, of having divine 
honours paid to him. He wished not only to be called, but to be be- 
lieved to be the son of Jupiter, and flatterers were not wanting to che- 
rish these ridiculous pretensions. He, therefore, appointed a festival, 
and made a pompous banquet, and during the king's short absence from 
the banquet, Cleon, one of his flatterers, proposed the offering of in- 
cense to him, as to a god. Callisthenes, the philosopher, who had 
accompanied the king, opposed the homage which Cleon had proposed, 
and his opposition cost him his life. Callisthenes was thrown into a 
dungeon, loaded with irons, and afflicted with the most grievous tor- 



What strong hold did he besiege?— and with what success ?— What befel Cli 
tus at an entertainment?— Relate the effect it had on the king. — Whom did the 
king visit ? — And whom did he marry ? 



163 

ments, in the midst of which he expired. Nothing has reflected so 
much dishonour on Alexander as this unjust and cruel death of Callis- 
thenes. 

At length, to appease the murmurs and discontents which arose 
among his soldiers, Alexander set out for India. He had, doubtless, 
read in the ancient fable of Greece, that Bacchus and Hercules, both 
sons of Jupiter, as himself was, had marched so far ; and he was deter- 
mined not to be surpassed by them. In this ridiculous desire of dis- 
turbing the tranquillity of nations consists the glory and merit of such 
pretended heroes; and it is that which many people, dazzled by a false 
splendour, still admire in Alexander. 

He besieged and took several cities. Among the most powerful was 
one governed by Porus. Alexander summoned him to surrender, Po- 
rus replied that he would do so, but it should be sword in hand. Porus 
advanced to the borders -of the Hydaspes, with eighty-five elephants, 
300 chariots, guarded by 30,000 foot, and 7,000 horse. The prince 
was mounted on an elephant of a much larger size than the rest, and 
he himself exceeded the usual stature of man, so that, clothed in his 
armour glittering with gold and silver, he appeared at the same time 
terrible and majestic. The greatness of his courage equalled that of 
his stature, and he was as wise and prudent as it was possible for the 
monarch of so barbarous a people to be. It was with this prince that 
the Macedonians had now to fight ; and to overcome him, with his nu- 
merous elephants, required all the courage and skill of an Alexander. 
The battle, however, was, after a difficult struggle, decided in favour 
of the Macedonians ; and when Porus came into his presence, Alexan- 
der asked him how he desired to be treated I " Like a king," replied 
Porus. " But," continued Alexander, "do you ask nothing morel" 
"No," replied Porus, "all things are included in that word." Alex- 
ander, struck with the magnanimous reply, not only restored him to 
his kingdom, but annexed other provinces to it. 

The conqueror was now meditating about proceeding to the Ganges 
to attack the Gangaridee and the Prasii, whose king was preparing to 
oppose his entering his dominions. This raised a general murmur 
through the army. The Macedonians, who had travelled through so 
many countries, and grown grey in the field, were incessantly directing 
their wishes towards their native country : they complained that Alex- 
ander heaped war upon war, and danger upon danger. The king in 
vain addressed them ; there arose a sudden murmur, which increased 
into deep groans, by which the king was much affected. Alexander 
therefore shut himself up for two days in his tent, in the hopes of some 
change taking place in the army, but finding them unchanged, he com- 
manded them to prepare for their return. This news filled the whole 
army with inexpressible joy. 



What caused the death of Callistenes ? — For the conquest of what country did 
\lexander next march? — What was the force of Porus ? — What was his reply? 
What prevented Alexander's further conquests in India ? 



164 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

CHAPTER 38. 
ALEXANDER RETURNS FROM INDIA — HIS DEATH. 

Alexander's fleet consisted of 800 galleys and boats, to carry the 
troops and provisions; and the whole army embarked. In passing 
through the country of Oxydracas and Malli, they had enemies to oppose, 
in which the king's person was involved in great danger, and rescued 
with extreme difficulty. After nine months sailing down the Acescines, 
the Hydaspes, and the Indus, they arrived at the ocean. Nearchus 
was appointed admiral of the fleet, which was to return to the Persian 
Gulf. Alexander returned by land, and in marching through the country 
of the OritK, such was his want of provisions that he lost a fourth part 
of his army. Sickness, bad food, and the excessive heats, had swept 
them away in multitudes, but famine made a still greater havoc. 

After marching sixty days, Alexander arrived at Gedrosia, where he 
found plenty of all things for his army. Through Caramania (now 
Kerman), he passed with the air and equipage of a warrior and con- 
queror. Nearchus still keeping along the sea coast, from the mouth of 
the Indus, came at last into the Persian Gulf, and arrived at the island 
of Hermusa (now Ormus). On his arrival he waited upon the king in 
Caramania, who was overjoyed to" hear of the safety of his fleet, and 
ordered it to sail up the Euphrates to Babylon. 

Nearchus's interesting account of his voyage had kindled up in the 
mind of Alexander a desire to visit the ocean. He proposed to himself 
sailing round Africa, and to return by the Mediterranean, a voyage 
which had been performed once, by order of Necho, king of Egypt. 
It was also his design to humble Carthage, cross to Iberia (now Spain), 
return by the Alps, and coast along Italy, from whence he would have 
but a short passage to Epirus, and from thence to Macedonia. But 
these and many other projects were defeated by his early death. 

On arriving at Susa, Alexander found all the captives of quality he 
had left there. He married Statira, Darius's eldest daughter, and gave 
the youngest to his dear friend Hephoestion, and persuaded the greatest 
men in his court to imitate him. Accordingly they chose from among 
the noblest families of Persia eighty young females whom they married. 
From Opis, Alexander arrived at Ecbatana, in Media. There had come 
to him from Greece 3,000 dancers, makers of machinery, and persons 
skilled in diversions. During the festivals, to the king's great grief, 
Hephsestion died. He was the king's most intimate friend, and equally 
beloved by all the courtiers for his unassuming and even temper. 

Alexander being arrived within a league or two of Babylon, the 
Chaldeans, who pretended to a knowledge of futurity, predicted that 
he would be in danger of his life if he entered that city. The great 



In his return, down what rivers did he sail? — At what ocean did his forces 
arrive? — Find on the Map, Gedrosia, Kerman, Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and 
Babylon. — What projects did Alexander conceive? — And what defeated them? 
What matrimonial engagements were entered into? — Did not the Chaldeans pre 
diet Alexander's life in danger ? 



( 166 ) 




DEATH OF ALEXANDER. 167 

reputation of these Babylonian astrologers had such a temporary im- 
pression on his mind that it delayed his entrance for some time till the 
principles of Anaxagoras, who held divination in contempt, had coun- 
teracted their influence. On his arrival at Babylon he found that am- 
bassadors from all parts of the world had assembled to pay him 
homage, and he entered the city in triumph. 

During almost a year that Alexander continued in Babylon, its embel- 
lishments much employed his thoughts, but his death soon after put an 
end to these projects. The Deity, by the mouth of Isaiah, (Isaiah, 
xiv. 22, 23,) 390 years before, had pronounced an anathema, which no 
human power could avert — " I will cut off from Babylon the name and 
remnant. I will make it a possession for the bittern. I will sweep 
it with the besom of destruction. It shall never be inhabited," &c. 

Alexander was for ever solemnizing new festivals, and was perpetu- 
ally at new banquets. After having spent a whole night in carousing, 
a second was proposed to him. There were twenty guests at table : he 
drank to the health of every person in company, and then pledged them 
severally. After this, calling for Hercules' cup, which held six bottles, 
he pledged Proteus in this furious bumper, drinking down the whole. 
An attempt to renew it threw him on the floor, which brought on a 
violent fever, from which he never recovered. Finding himself past 
all hopes, and his voice faltering, he gave his ring to Perdiccas, with 
orders to convey his corpse to the temple of Amnion. Notwithstanding 
his extreme weakness, he presented to the soldiers in attendance his 
dying hand to kiss. The principal courtiers asking to whom he left 
the empire, he answered, "To the most worthy ;" foreseeing, doubtless, 
the struggles there would be for pre-eminence. 

After great contentions about appointing a successor, it was agreed 
that Aridaeus, natural brother to Alexander, should be declared king, 
and that, in case Roxana should be delivered of a son, he should share 
the throne with Aridseus, and that Perdiccas should have the care of 
both, for Aridosus was of weak intellect. 

In contemplating the character of Alexander, Livy justly observes 
that it appears different according to the times in which we consider 
him. Before the siege of Tyre, he appeared temperate, brave, judi- 
cious, intrepid ; but, during the latter part, arrogant, cruel, enervated 
by delights and abandoned to intemperance. The first years of his 
reign are, perhaps, the most glorious of his life. He then displayed 
presence of mind, strength of soul, courage, intrepidity, and, what is 
more than all, a consummate prudence ; qualities which form the char- 
acter of the true hero. But though Alexander possessed great virtues, 
we may throw into the other scale his errors and vices — the presump- 
tuous idea he entertained of his own merit, his ridiculous notion of 
fancying himself to be the son of Jupiter, and of ascribing divinity to 
himself, his violent anger, which rcse to brutal ferocity, the murder of 
his most worthy friends, and his frantic ambition, which knew neither 
law nor limit. These diminished his title to the surname of Great. 

What prophecy has Isaiah against Babylon ? — What festival was fatal to Alex- 
ander? — Who was appointed as his successor? — Describe his character. — What 
says Livy of him i 



■a 

168 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

By his death, Macedonia, the kingdom he inherited, and which his 
ancestors had governed for so many ages, was possessed by another 
family. When the news of his death reached Sysigambis, she was 
inconsolable. " Who now," .said she, " will take care of my two 
daughters'? W~here shall we find another Alexander !" At last she 
sunk under her grief. 

CHAPTER 39. 

SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER— DEATH OF PHOCION 

After Alexander's death, great contention arose among the principal 
officers, and as there were thirty-three who had been previously appoint- 
ed to the superintendence of the provinces, each trusted to his own 
sword to secure his possession ; but nothing was permanently settled 
till after the battle of Ipsus, which was fought by Antigonus and his 
son, against Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus, who had 
bound themselves to maintain the rights of each other. In this event- 
ful engagement Antigonus lost his life, and in consequence the whole 
empire of Alexander was thus divided: to Ptoiemy, Egypt, Libya, 
Arabia and Palestine ; to Cassander, Macedonia and Greece ; to Lysi- 
machus, Bithynia and Thrace ; and to Seleucus, the rest of Asia as far 
as the Indus. This last was called the kingdom of Syria, and became 
the most powerful of the four. Seleucus built Antioch, and made it 
his capital, in honour of his father Antiochus. 

In Macedonia, scenes equally sanguinary were carried on. Alexander 
had left the government of this country in the hands of Antipater, a 
general who had been highly esteemed by his father Philip. The news 
of Alexander's death being known at Athens excited great joy, and the 
people who had reluctantly sustained the Macedonian yoke, now made 
liberty the subject of their discourse. A war was resolved upon, and a 
deputation was sent to all the states of Greece to gain their accession 
to the league, and all, except the Thebans, united. This was called 
the Lamiacum war, and Leosthenes was appointed to conduct it against 
Antipater. The Macedonian garrisons were at first expelled, and Anti- 
pater was obliged to surrender at discretion. He, however, soon extri- 
cated himself from this difficult situation, and, in his turn, he obliged 
the Athenians to accept the same conditions as those they had imposed 
upon him. Antipater falling sick with a disease which proved fatal, he 
was very solicitous to fill up ably the two great stations which he 
enjoyed. It was necessary to appoint a governor over Macedonia, and 
a regent of the empire. Antipater had a son, Cassander, not void of 
merit; but the preservation of the Macedonian monarchy obliged him 
to nominate a man of authority — one reputed for his age, experience, 
and past services. He therefore extinguished the voice of nature, and 
sacrificed the interests of his own family to the public welfare. History 
has transmitted to us an expression of the emperor Galba, which does 

What effect had his death on Sysigambis ? — What were the contentions among 
the officers? — What countries were assigned to each ? — What effect had Alexan- 
der's death on Greece ? — What is said of Cassander, Antigonus, Polysperchon, &c. 



DEATH OF OLYMPIAS. 169 

honour to his memory ; " Augustus," said he, " chose a successor out 
of his own family ; and I one from the whole empire." Antipater 
appointed Polysperchon. 

Cassander was extremely enraged by this choice, and endeavoured 
to engage Ptolemy and Antigonus to his party against the new regent, 
whorn it was equally their interest to destroy, as well as the regency 
itself. The death of Antipater had rendered Antigonus the most pow- 
erful of all the captains of Alexander. His authority was absolute in 
all the provinces of Asia Minor. Polysperchon, on his part, neglected 
nothing that could strengthen his interest. He recalled Olympias, with 
the offer of sharing his authority with her, and he reinstated all the 
cities of Greece in their ancient privileges. Phocion, who had long 
presided at Athens, was divested of his office, and accused of treason. 
He was not allowed to plead his cause. When he arrived at the 
prison, one of his friends asked him if he had any message to send to 
his son 1 " Yes," replied he, " it is to desire that he would never re- 
member the injustice of the Athenians." When he had uttered these 
words, he took the hemlock, and died. 

Phocion was one of the greatest men Greece ever produced ; in whoso 
person every kind of merit was united. He restored the manner of 
governing both of Pericles and Aristides, by uniting the talents of each 
in himself. It was highly glorious for Phocion that he was forty-five 
times elected general by the people. His wife was fully sensible of 
the honour; for one day when an Ionian lady of high rank showed, 
with ostentation, her ornaments, she replied, " For my part, I have no 
ornament but Phocion, who, for these twenty years, has always been 
elected general by the Athenians." His infatuated and ungrateful 
country was not sensible of its criminal proceedings till some time after 
his death. The Athenians then erected a statue of brass to his memory, 
and honourably interred his bones at the public expense. 

During the disorder that reigned at Athens, Cassander entered the 
Pircsus with a fleet of of thirty-five vessels, and held possession of the 
city. Polysperchon made an ineffectual attempt to besiege him. Du- 
ring these transactions, Olympias, the mother of Alexander, whom Po- 
lysperchon had recalled, had made herself absolute mistress of affairs, 
and had caused Aridceus to be put to death. Eurydice, his consort, 
sustained the same fate. Olympias afterwards retired to Pydna. Cas- 
sander advanced thither; and he employed in her murder the relations 
of those whom she had caused to be put to death. Thus perished the 
famous Olympias, the daughter, the sister, the wife, and the mother of 
kings, and whose crimes and cruelties merited so tragical an end ; while 
we detest the wickedness of a prince who deprived her of life in so 
unworthy a manner. 

Cassander thus raising himself on the throne of Macedon, Polysper- 
chon first sheltered himself in Naxa, and thence retired to Thessaly. 
Antigonus, in order to rid himself of so dangerous an enemy, raised 

What is recorded of Phocien ? — What reply did his wife make to an Ionian lady * 
— What occasioned the death of Olympias, the mother of Alexander ?- Who pos- 
sessed himself of the throne of Macedon ? 
15 



170 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

an army in Asia, and advanced against Eumenes. Persia and Mtdia 
were the scene of its operations. Eumenes was taken prisoner, and 
Antigonus ordered him to be put to death. 

Antigonus now concluded that he should become master of the empire. 
Many of the governors of the provinces he discarded, or proscribed.— 
Among the latter was Selencus, governor of Babylon, who, to escape 
the danger, threw himself under the protection of Ptolemy, governor 
of Egypt, and engaged him in a league with Lysimachus and Cassander. 
Selencus, on his return to Babylon, was received with acclamation. 
With this entry commences the famous era of the Seleucides, received 
by all the people of the east, as well Pagans as Jews, Christians as 
Mahomedans. The Jews called it the era of contracts, because when 
they were subject to the Syro-Macedonian kings, they were obliged to 
insert it in the dates of their contracts. The two books of Maccabees 
called it the era of the Greeks. The thirty-one years of the reign as- 
cribed to Seleucus begin at this period. 

CHAPTER 40. 
ACHAEAN LEAGUE — GREECE REDUCED TO A ROMAN PROVINCE. 

The young Alexander being now about fourteen years old, Cassan- 
der caused him and his mother, Roxana, to be secretly put to death in 
the castle of Amphipolis, where they had both been confined for some 
years. 

Seleucus (B. C. 301) formed his army at Babylon, and marched into 
Cappadocia to act against Antigonus. At length the confederate army 
of Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, were opposed to 
the army of Antigonus and his son, Demetrius. Each army consisted 
of about 70,000. The battle was fought near lpsus, a city of Phrygia. 

In the engagement, Antigonus, having received many wounds, fell, 
after defending himself valiantly to the last. Demetrius, his son, in 
consequence retired toEphesus; and the four confederate princes di- 
vided the dominions of Antigonus among themselves, and added them 
to those they already possessed; and thus the empire of Alexander was 
at last divided, as before mentioned, into four kingdoms.* 

The reign of twenty years assigned to Seleucus commences at this 
period, because he was not acknowledged as king till after the battle 
of lpsus ; and if we add to these the twelve years during which he 
exercised the regal authority without the title, they will make out the 
reign of thirty-one years assigned him by Usher. The dominions of 
this prince are usually called the kingdom of Syria ; and his own reign, 
and those of his successors, are usually termed those of the Seleucidas. 

* The Prophecies of Daniel, viii. 6— ft ; ii. 22, were exactly accomplished by this last 
portion of Alexander's empire. 

With whom did Seleucus, and Ptolemy unite? — Who caused the young prince 
Alexander and his mother Roxana to be put to death? — What great and decisive 
battle was fought near lpsus? — Over what provinces was Seleucus king? 



LYSIMACHUS. 171 

Cassander, when he had destroyed the family of Alexander, took the 
title of king. His vicious and feeble sons lost their lives and the 
throne, which was seized on by Demetrius, son of Antigonus ; and he, 
in his turn, was expelled by Pyrrhus of Epirus, and Pyrrhus by Lysi- 
machus, king 1 of Thrace. During sixleen years, twelve kings of dif- 
ferent houses governed Macedon and the paternal dominions of Alexan- 
der. In the time of these kings, an army of Kelts devastated Mace- 
don, penetrated into Greece, and advanced to pillage the temple of 
Delphi. The Greeks rolled down rocks from the heights — thunder 
roared through the mountains — the terrified barbarians fled, and the god 
got the renown of defending the temple. 

Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, a man of prudence and hu- 
manity, raised Macedon out of the ruin into which it had been plunged ; 
and during the reign of forty years he was the protector of Greece. 
His son, Demetrius II., (B. C. 243,) who succeeded him, emulated his 
virtues. Demetrius dying, left an infant son, Philip, whose uncle and 
guardian, Antigonus, surnamed Doson, married the widow of the late 
king, and usurped the kingdom, which he governed with ability for 
eleven years, and then left it to the lawful heir, Philip. This prince 
mixed himself with the affairs of Greece, and was recognized as sove- 
reign lord of that country. War took place in consequence, between 
him and the Romans, (B. C. 198,) and Philip was defeated, obliged to 
withdraw his garrisons from Greece, reduce his shipping, and pay the 
expenses of the war. His son, Perseus, renewed the war with Rome, 
but was taken, and died in prison ; and Macedon was shortly after 
reduced to a Roman province. 

The cities of Achaea renewed among themselves an old confederacy, 
named the Achaean league, which, under the guidance of Aratus, la- 
boured with vigour for the freedom of Greece against Macedon ; other 
cities gradually joined the league, and among them Athens. The Mto- 
lian towns formed a similar union ; but their enmity with the Achaeans 
and Sparta prevented their arriving at any importance. Civil discord, 
the perpetual bane of Greece, gave the Romans the wished-for oppor- 
tunity of intermeddling in its. affairs. Corinth was taken and destroyed ; 
and Greece reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achsea. 
The last of the race of the Greeks was Philopoemen, the Arcadian gene- 
ral of the Achaean league. Lysimachus, the king of Thrace, at one 
time conquered Macedon, and was master of part of the countries about 
the Euxine. His reign was the flourishing period of Thrace; but it 
was of short duration. Lysimachus fell in battle against Seleucus. 
The Gauls ravaged the land, which sometimes obeyed Syrian and 
sometimes Egyptian princes. The native princes at length recovered 
their power. King Cotys, one of these princes, formed an alliance 
with the Romans; and king Sacales gave up Thrace to them. (B. C. 43.) 

At this period some independent states arose in Lesser Asia, which 
we shall here briefly notice. Bithynia, stretching along the Black 



What occurred to the army that pillaged Delphi ? — With what Grecian king did 
the Romans war ? — What was the Achaean league ? — Was it successful ? — Name 
the states that lose in Lesser Asia. 



172 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

Sea, was at one time tributary to the Lydians, and then to the Persians. 
After the death of Alexander, internal troubles continually agitated this 
state. The Gauls had a district assigned them called Galatia. In 
the reign of Prusias, Hannibal in vain sought a refuge at his court. 
Nicomedes 4th, seventy-five years before Christ, having no children, 
made over his dominions to the Romans. 

Pergamus, the ancient Mysia, vanished in the Lydian and Persian 
empires. The most celebrated of its kings was Eumenes 2d, in whose 
reign- the pergament or parchment was invented. Attalus 3d, having 
no heirs, left his kingdom to the Romans. (B. C. 133.) 

Pontus, so named from lying near the Pontus Euxinus, is situated 
east of Bithynia. Mithridates 7th was a talented and ambitious prince, 
and, during a space of thirty years, he sustained a war against the arms 
of Rome. It was finally reduced by the emperor Nero to the form of a 
Roman province. 

Armenia appears not till late in the history of Asia. It obeyed suc- 
cessively the Assyrian, Persian, and Syrian empires, and the greater 
part was at one time subject to the Romans. In the time of the empe- 
ror Adrian it had kings of its own, and was finally absorbed in the Per- 
sian empire of the Sassanides. 

Syria. — Seleucus, named Nicator, was an active, prudent prince, an 
encourager of trade, and a founder of cities. His son, Antiochus, ob- 
tained the name of Soter (the Saver), for having delivered Lesser Asia 
from the Gauls. Antiochus the Great invaded Greece, but was repelled 
by the Romans ; and the surrender of all countries west of the Taurus, 
and the sending his son as a hostage to Rome, were the consequence. 
The Syrian power was now at an end. Roman influence was para- 
mount. Parthia rapidly extended its conquests. Judea and Armenia 
asserted their independence. The empire was finally contracted into 
Proper Syria and Phoenicia; and the Romans (B. C. 64,) terminated 
the empire of the Seleucidae, by declaring Syria a Roman province. 

CHAPTER 41. 

AFFAIRS OF JUDEA, EGYPT, AND SYRIA. 

Judea continued in obedience to the Persian Monarchy till the con- 
quests of Alexander, then to his successors ; first to the king of Egypt, 
and afterwards to that of Syria. Their rulers had, hitherto, respected 
their religion ; but Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to enforce them to 
adopt Grecian rites. The Maccabees, a race of heroes, like the Judges 
of old, arose. Mattathias began, and his valiant son, Judas Macca- 
beus, continued the warfare. His brothers followed up his successes 
so ably after his death, that the Syrians were forced to acknowledge 
the independence of Judea. John Hyrcanus, uniting in his person the 
dignities of high priest and prince, extended the dominions. But the 
Jewish power was not of long continuance ; the throne was often dis- 

What is said of Mithridates ? — What power terminated the empire of the Seleu- 
cides ? — What changes did Judea undergo ? 



AFFAIRS OF EGYPT. 173 

puted, and the Romans interposed to settle the succession. In the year 
39 before Christ they set the Idumean Antipater over Judea, whose son 
Herod became king, a prince well known for his cruelty. 

Parthia is the country lying between Media and Aria, south of Hyr- 
cania. Its inhabitants had obeyed the Persian and Syrian Monarchs. 
The tyranny of the latter drove them to rebellion. Arsaces, a man of 
humble birth, but of military talent, placed himself at their head, and 
achieved their independence. The succeeding' kings were called Arsa- 
cides. Their dominions extended from India to the Euphrates, and 
from the Caspian to the Arabian Sea. They were the only people who 
resisted Rome with success. 

Egypt continued part of the Persian empire till Alexander the Great 
vanquished Darius. At Alexander's death it fell to the share of Pto- 
lemy Lagus, (B.C. 304,) or, as he is sometimes called, Soter ; who, 
however, did not assume the regal title till nineteen years after the death 
of Alexander. It was in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus that the famous 
tower of Pharos was finished ; and the image of Serapis was conveyed 
to Alexandria by permission of the king of Pontus. Ptolemy also 
founded the famous library at Alexandria, which before he died con- 
tained two hundred thousand volumes, and this number was afterwards 
increased to seven hundred thousand. These books were kept in a 
magnificent building under the superintendence of several learned men, 
who lived together in a stately palace, and were maintained at the pub- 
lic expense. A great part of this famous library was consumed, as 
some authors assert, by the enthusiasm of the Caliph Omar, under the 
impression that if the same doctrine was contained in these books as 
in the Koran, they were useless ; and if not, they were dangerous. 

In the latter part of his reign, Ptolemy Lagus joined with himself 
in the government his second son, Philadclphus, in preference to Cerau- 
nus, his eldest son ; and this prudent choice of Ptolemy is to be com- 
mended, as Ceraunus was a monster of cruelty and matchless barbarity, 
whom neither moral nor divine laws could restrain within the bounds 
of decorum. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 284,) succeeded his father on the throne 
of Egypt. In order to revenge himself on Demetrius Phalereus, who 
had honestly advised Lagus to appoint his eldest son his successor, 
Philadelphia banished him till the nature of his punishment should be 
determined ; but he met his death by the bite of an asp, and thus 
escaped the vengeance of Ptolemy. 

Philadelphus contracted an alliance with the Romans ; and being 
solicitous to enrich his kingdom by improving its commerce, he had the 
commodities of Arabia, India, Persia, and Ethiopia, conveyed to Alex- 
andria by means of a canal which he had cut, which nearly joined the 
Nile to the Red Sea. Alexandria became famous, as carrying on the 
most extensive commerce of any city in the world. This prince was a 
great patron of learned men, and a lover of the arts and sciences. He 

Whom did the inhabitants of Parthia obey ? — And what changes did Egypt un- 
dergo before Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus? — And what alliance did 
Philadelphus contract with the Romans ? 

15* 



174 HISTORY OF GREECE. 

had an extraordinary taste for books ; and spared no expense in the 
augmentation and embellishment of the library founded by his father, 
and in collecting statues and paintings. He died in the sixty-third 
year of his age, and the thirty-eighth of his reign, and was succeeded 
by his eldest son, Ptolemy Euergetes. 

On ascending the throne, this prince declared war against the king 
of Syria. Euergetes was so successful in this expedition that he made 
himself master of Syria and Cilicia, after which he passed the Euphra- 
tes, and conquered all the country as far as Babylon and the Tigris ; he 
then marched back to Egypt, laden with the spoils he had acquired by 
his conquests. This prince carried off a prodigious quantity of gold 
and silver, and two thousand five hundred statues, part of which were 
those Egyptian idols that Cambyses had carried into Persia. When 
Ptolemy Euergetes set out on this expedition, his queen Berenice made 
a vow to consecrate her hair, if he should return in safety. Accord- 
ingly she caused it to be cut off, and dedicated it to the gods. This 
consecrated hair is fabled to have disappeared, and to have been con- 
verted into a constellation in the stars. (B. C. 274.) 

Ptolemy, in his return from his expedition, passed through Jerusa- 
lem, where he offered a great number of sacrifices to the God of Israel, 
in order to render homage to him for the victories he had obtained over 
the king of Syria. He devoted the leisure of peace to the cultivation 
of the sciences in his dominions, and the enlargement of his father's 
library at Alexandria with all sorts of books ; but as a proper collec- 
tion could not be made without an able librarian, Euergetes, upon the 
death of Zenodotus, who had exercised that function from the time of 
Ptolemy Soter, sent to Athens for Eratosthenes, the Cyrenian, who 
was then in great reputation, and had been educated by Callimachus, a 
native of the same country. Euergetes died (B. C. 222,) after a reign 
of twenty-five years, and was the last of that race in whom any true 
virtue and moderation were conspicuous. 

Ten degenerate descendants of Ptolemy Lagus succeeded. Murders 
were perpetrated for empire. The frequent interference of the Romans 
alone preserved it from dissolution. The last Ptolemy had espoused 
his sister Cleopatra. Driven from Egypt, she sought the protection 
of Caesar, who re-established her as sole ruler. After his death, she 
united herself to Antonius ; and on his decease poisoned herself, rather 
than grace the triumph of Octavianus. Egypt was then reduced to the 
form of a Roman province. (B. C. 30.) 

Thus the kingdom of Europe and Asia, whose destinies we have 
traced in the preceding pages, fell, as we have seen, almost all, into 
the spreading empire of Rome; a state which embraced nearly the 
whole civilized world within her sway. 

What expedition did Euergetes undertake? — What vow did his queen Berenice 
make ? — What farther account have we of Ptolemy Evergetes ? — What are the 
concluding remarks on Egypt before it became a Roman province? 



( 176 ) 




ANCIENT HISTORY. 



ROME. 

(177) 



[ 179 ] 



HISTORY OF ROME 



CHAPTER 1. 
THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 



The Romans were particularly desirous of being thought of high 
descent. iEneas, the son of Venus and Anchises, having escaped the 
destruction of Troy, arrived in Italy, A. M. 2294,* where he was kindly 
received by Latinns, king of the Latins, who gave him his daughter, 
Lavinia, in marriage. On the death of his father-in-law, the kingdom 
of Latium fell to iEneas. In an engagement with the Rutuli and the 
Tyrrhenians, near the banks of the Numicus, he was unfortunately pre- 
cipitated into that river and drowned. 

./Eneas was succeeded by Ascanius, his son, born to him by Creusa, 
before the fall of Troy ; and to him Silvius, the second son of ^Eneas, 
whom he had by Lavinia ; and that succession continued nearly four 
hundred years in the same family. Numitor, the fifteenth from iEneas, 
was the last king of Alba, a city that was founded by Ascanius. 

Numitor took possession of the kingdom in consequence of his 
father's will ; he had a brother named Amulius, to whom were left the 
treasures brought from Troy, who made use of his riches to supplant 
his brother, and to the crime of usurpation he added that of murder. 
Numitor's sons first fell a sacrifice, and he caused Rhea Silvia, his 
brother's daughter, to become a vestal. The office of a vestal was 
given to ladies of noble families, whose duty consisted in keeping up 
the sacred fire in the temple dedicated to the goddess Vesta — they were 
devoted to perpetual virginity. 

Rhea Silvia was called to the performance of some religious service 
in the Temple of Mars, where a person, disguised in the military habit 
like that in which Mars was commonly represented, surprised and forced 
the vestal. When Rhea Silvia could no longer conceal her shame, she 
charged the god Mars with being the cause of it. In due time she be- 
came the mother of two boys, who were no sooner born than devoted 

* The ancient names of Italy were Saturnia, CEnotria, Hespcria, and Ausonia. 

What was the origin of the Romans ? — In what part of Italy did they settle? — 
Who succeeded vEneas ? — By what means did Numitor gain possession of the king- 
dom ? — Relate the origin of Romu'us and Remus. 



180 HISTORY OF ROME. 

by the usurper to destruction. The mother was condemned to be buried 
alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had violated their vows, 
and the twins were ordered to be flung into the river Tiber. 

It happened at that time that the river overflowed its banks, and the 
water where the infants were thrown was too shallow to drown them. 
It is said by some that they were exposed in a cradle, which, after 
floating awhile, was left on dry ground, and that a wolf descending to 
drink, ran, at the cry of the children, and nursed them, until Faustulus, 
the king's shepherd, struck with so surprising a sight, conveyed them 
home and delivered them to his wife, Acca Laurentia, to nurse, who 
brought them up as their own. 

Romulus and Remus, the twins, however preserved, seemed early to 
discover abilities above the meanness of their supposed origin. They 
led, however, the shepherd's life. But pastoral idleness displeased them, 
and they betook themselves to the chase. They next turned their 
strength against the robbers of their country. The youths who con- 
tinued to join them, increased in number, so as to enable them to hold 
assemblies and celebrate games. From many circumstances, Faustulus 
suspected that the twins under his care were the same that Amulius 
exposed on the Tiber, and at length divulged his suspicions to Romulus. 
From that time nothing was thought of but the tyrant's destruction. 
He was beset on all sides, and, during the distraction that ensued, was 
taken and slain, while Numitor, who had been deposed for forty years, 
recognized his grandsons, and was once more placed on the throne. 

The two brothers, leaving Numitor the kingdom of Alba, determined 
to build a city on the spot on which they had been exposed. But a 
fatal desire of pre-eminence seized them both, and they were advised 
by the king to take an omen from the flight of birds, to know which of 
them the tutelary gods would decree the honour of governing the rising 
city. In compliance with this advice, each took his station on a diffe- 
rent hill. To Remus appeared six vultures ; in the moment after, Ro- 
mulus saw twelve. Some parties declared for Remus, who first saw 
the vultures ; others for Romulus, who saw the greater number. This 
produced a contest, which ended in a battle, in which Remus was slain. 
Another account says that he was killed by his brother, who being pro- 
voked at his leaping contemptuously over the city wall, struck him 
dead on the spot. 

Romulus being now sole commander, and eighteen years of age, be- 
gan the foundation of a city that was one day to give laws to the world. 
It was called Rome, after the name of the founder, and built upon the 
Palatine Mount, on which side he had taken his successful omen. 
(A. M. 3252. B. C. 752.) The city was first nearly square, containing 
about a thousand houses. It was almost a mile in circumference, and 
commanded a small territory round it of eight miles over. It was at 
first poorly inhabited, and the first method made use of to increase its 
numbers, was the opening of a sanctuary for all malefactors and slaves, 
and such as were desirous of novelty. 

What were the employments of their youth? — By what means did Remus come 
by his death ? — What city did Romulus begin to build ? 



SABINE WAR. 181 

Scarcely was the city raised above its foundation, when its rude in- 
habitants began to think of giving some form to its constitution. Ro- 
mulus left them to choose whom they would for their king, and they 
concurred in electing their founder for their ruler. He was acknow- 
ledged as chief of their religion, sovereign, magistrate, and general of 
the army. Besides a guard to attend his person, he was preceded by 
twelve lictors, each armed with an axe tied up in a bundle of rods ; 
these were to serve as executioners of the law, and to impress his new 
subjects with an idea of his authority. 

The Senate, who were to act as counsellors to the king, was com- 
posed of a hundred of the principal citizens, consisting of men whose 
age, wisdom or valour, gave them a natural authority over their fellow 
subjects. The Patricians, who composed the third part of the legisla- 
ture, assumed to themselves the power of authorizing those laws, 
choosing magistrates, &c. The Plebeians were to till the fields, feed 
cattle, and follow trades, but to have no share in the government, to 
avoid the inconveniences of a popular power. 

The first care of the new king was to attend to the interests of reli- 
gion. The precise form of their worship is unknown, but it consisted 
in a reliance on the credit of their soothsayers, who pretended, from 
observations on the flight of birds and the entrails of beasts, to direct 
the present, and to dive into futurity. Romulus commanded that no 
election should be made, nor enterprise undertaken, without first con- 
sulting them. He next gave orders to ascertain the number of his sub- 
jects. The whole amounted to no more than three thousand foot, and 
about as many hundred horsemen, capable of bearing arms. These 
were divided into three tribes, and each tribe into ten curiae or compa- 
nies, consisting of a hundred men each, with a centurion to command 
it. By these judicious regulations, each day added strength to the new 
city ; multitudes of people flocked in from the adjacent towns, and it 
only seemed to want women to ensure its duration. 

CHAPTER 2. 
SABINE WAR— NUMA POMPILIUS — TULLUS HOSTILIUS. 

In this exigence Romulus sent deputies among the Sabines, his 
neighbours, entreating their alliance ; the proposal was rejected with 
disdain. Romulus, therefore, proclaimed a feast in honour of Neptune 
throughout the neighbouring villages. These feasts were generally 
preceded by sacrifices, and ended in shows of wrestlers, gladiators, and 
chariot courses. The Sabines were among the foremost who came to 
be spectators, bringing with them their wives and daughters. While 
the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a number of the Ro- 
man youths rushed among them with drawn swords, and carried off the 
youngest and most beautiful women by violence. In vain was all re- 

Who was chosen king ? — With what power was he invested ? — What composed 
the senate ? — Who were the Patricians ? — What was the employment of the Ple- 
beians? — What was the first care of Romulus? — By what means did the Romans 
procure women ? 
16 



182 IIISTOEY OF ROME. 

sistance from the parents and the virgins. Perseverance and caresses 
obtained those favours which timidity at first denied, so that the ravish 
ers soon became the partners of their affections. 

A bloody war ensued. The cities of Caenina, Antemnae, and Crustu- 
minum, were the first to revenge the common cause. But these, by 
making separate inroads, became an easy conquest to Romulus, who 
made a merciful use of his victories. Tatius, king of Cures, a Sabine 
city, was the last, although the- most formidable, who undertook to re- 
venge the disgrace his country had suffered. He entered the Roman 
territory at the head of twenty-five thousand men, and made himself 
master of the Roman citadel. But hostilities were at length terminated 
by the women whom the Romans had violently seized, and who be- 
sought the combatants to lay aside their animosity and desist. An ac- 
commodation ensued, by which it was agreed that Romulus and Tatius 
should reign jointly in Rome, with equal power and prerogative — that 
a hundred Sabines should be admitted into the Senate, and that the 
citizens should be called Quirites, after Cures, the principal town of 
the Sabines. The conquest of Cameria was the only military achieve- 
ment under the two kings ; Tatius was killed about four years after by 
the Lavinians, and Romulus once more saw himself sole monarch of 
Rome. Soon after a cruel plague and famine having broken out at 
Rome, the Camerini embraced the opportunity to lay waste the Roman 
territory. But Romulus gave them battle, killed six thousand, and 
returned in triumph to Rome. He likewise took Fidena, a city about 
forty furlongs from his capital, and reduced the Veientes to submission. 

Successes like these induced the conqueror to affect absolute sway. 
The Senate was displeased at his conduct, as they found themselves 
used only as instruments to ratify the rigour of his commands. We 
are not told the precise manner which they employed to get rid of the 
tyrant. Some say that he was torn in pieces in the Senate-house ; 
others that he disappeared while reviewing his army : certain it is, that, 
from the secrecy of the fact, and the concealment of the body, they 
took occasion to persuade the multitude that he was carried up into 
heaven. Thus him, whom they could not bear as a king, they were 
contented to worship as a god. Romulus reigned thirty-seven years; 
and after his death had a temple built to him under the name of Qui- 
rinus. 

B. C. 715. Upon the death of Romulus, the city seemed divided in 
the choice of a successor. The Sabines were for having a king chosen 
from their own body ; but the Romans could not endure to have a 
stranger advanced to the throne. In this perplexity the senators under- 
took to supply the place of a king, by taking the government each in 
his turn for five days, and during that time enjoying all the honours 
and privileges of royalty. This new form of government continued 
.for a year ; but the plebeians, who saw that mode of government only 

What hostilities did the infant state experience? — What conquests did Romulus 
make ? — How long did Romulus reign? — What report was circulated concerning 
his death ? — What was built to his honour ? — What form of government was after 
wards adopted ? 



the curiatii. 183 

multiplied their masters, insisted upon an alteration. Therefoie the 
Senate fixed upon Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, and their choice was 
received with approbation by the people. 

Numa Pompilius, who was now about forty, had long been eminent 
for his piety, justice, moderation and exemplary life. He was skilled 
in all the philosophy of the Sabines, and lived unambitious of higher 
honours, and it was not without reluctance that he accepted the dignity. 

No monarch could be more proper for them than Numa, at a conjunc- 
ture when the government was composed of various petty states but 
ill-united to each other. Numa inspired his subjects with a veneration 
for the gods. He built many new temples, instituted sacred offices and 
feasts. He pretended to a particular correspondence with the goddess 
iEgeria, and that by her advice he built the temple of Janus, which 
was to be shut in time of peace, and open in war. For the encourage- 
ment of agriculture, he divided the lands which Romulus had gained 
in war among the poorer part of the people ; he regulated the calendar, 
and abolished the distinction between Romans and Sabines. 

Thus having arrived at the age of fourscore years, and having reigned 
forty-three in profound peace, he died ; ordering his body, contrary to 
the custom of the times, to be buried in a stone coffin, and his books 
of ceremonies, which consisted of twelve in Latin, and as many in 
Greek, to be buried by his side in another. Upon the death of Numa, 
the government once more devolved upon the Senate, till the people 
elected Tullus Hostilius for their king, in which choice the other part 
of the constitution concurred. He was the grandson of a noble Ro- 
man, but, unlike his predecessor, was entirely devoted to war. The 
Albans, by committing some depredations on the Roman territories, 
gave him an opportunity of indulging his inclinations. Both armies 
met about five miles from Rome, and the Alban general proposed to 
decide the dispute by single combat. There were at that time three 
twin brothers in each army, those of the Romans called Horatii, and 
those of the Albans Curiatii; — all six remarkable for their courage, 
strength, and activity ; and to these it was resolved to commit the man- 
agement of the combat. 

Victory, after being long doubtful, appeared to declare against the 
Romans ; they beheld two of their champions lying dead upon the 
plain, and the three Curiatii, who were wounded, slowly endeavouring 
to pursue the survivor, who seemed by flight to beg for mercy ; but 
his flight was only pretended in order to separate his three antagonists, 
for quickly after, stopping and turning upon the first, he laid him dead 
at his feet ; the second brother, who was coming up to assist, shared 
the same fate; the last Curiatius, disabled by his wounds, advanced to 
offer an easy victory, the conqueror exclaiming, " Two have I already 
sacrificed to the manes of my brothers ; the third will I offer up to my 
country." The Alban army now consented to obey the Roman. The 

Whom did the senate choose for king ?— For what was Numa Pompilius remark- 
able ? — What temple did he build ? — How long did he reign ? — Who was chosen 
his successor ?— What war broke out? — By what means was the contest decided? 
- Who were the victors ? 



184 HISTORY OF ROME. 

victorious youth, returning triumphant from the field, found his sister 
lamenting the loss of her lover, one of the Curiatii, to whom she had 
been betrothed. This so provoked him that in a rage he slew her. 
The action displeased the Senate, and drew after it condemnation from 
the magistrates ; but making his appeal to the people, he was pardoned. 
Tullus having increased the power and wealth of Rome by repeated 
victories, now demanded satisfaction of the Sabines for some insults 
offered to Roman citizens at the temple of the goddess Feronia, which 
was common to both nations. A war ensued which lasted some years, 
and ended in the total overthrow of the Sabines. Hostilius died after 
a reign of thirty-two years ; some say by lightning ; othte, with more 
probability, by treason. 

CHAPTER 3. 

ANCUS MARTIUS — LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS — SERVIU& 
TULLUS. 

After an interregnum, as in the former case, Ancus Martius, ths 
grandson of Numa, was elected king by the people, and confirmed by 
the Senate. This monarch made Numa the great object of his imita- 
tion. He instituted the sacred ceremonies which were to precede war, 
but took every occasion to advise his subjects to return to the arts of 
agriculture, and lay aside the less useful stratagems of war. These 
institutions were considered by the neighbouring powers as the effects 
of cowardice, and the Latins began to make incursions ; but they were 
conquered by Ancus, their cities were destroyed, and the inhabitants 
removed to Rome. He quelled also an insurrection of the Veii, the 
Fidenates, and the Volsci ; and over the Sabines he obtained a second 
triumph. But his victories over the enemy were not comparable to his 
works at home, in raising temples, fortifying the city, making a prison 
for malefactors, and building a sea-port at the mouth of the Tiber, 
called Ostia, by which he secured the trade of that river, and that of 
the salt-pits adjacent. Thus having enriched his subjects, and beauti- 
fied the city, he died after a reign of twenty-four years. 

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who was appointed guardian to the sons 
of the late king, took his surname from the city of Tarquinia, (B. C. 
610,) the place of his previous residence. His father, a merchant of 
Corinth, in Greece, who had acquired considerable wealth by trade, 
settled in Italy. His son Lucumon, married a woman of family in the 
city of Tarquinia, and removed to Rome. His elegant address, his 
frequent invitations, and the many benefits he conferred, gained him the 
esteem of the people. On his removal to Rome, say the historians, as 
he approached the city gate, an eagle, stooping from above, took off his 
Vat, and, flying round the chariot for some time, put it on again. This, 
nis wife Tanaquil, who it seems was skilled in augury, iG'.erpreted as 

What occasioned a war with the Sabines ? — Ho w long did Tullus Hostilius 
reign ? — Who was next elected ? — What remarkable works did Ancus effect ? — 
How long did he reign ? — Who next obtained the kingdom ? 



SERVIUS TULLUS. 185 

a presage that he should one day wear the crown. Tarquin used all 
his power and art to set aside the children of the late king, and to be 
elected in their stead. For this purpose he urged the benefits he had 
done the city. It had the desired effect, and the people elected him for 
their sovereign. 

A kingdom thus obtained by intrigue was notwithstanding governed 
with equity. In the beginning of his reign, in order to recompense his 
friends, he added a hundred members more to the Senate, which made 
them in all three hundred. But his peaceful endeavours were soon in- 
terrupted by the Latins, over whom he triumphed. He then turned his 
arms against the Sabines, who had once more risen and had passed the 
Tiber. He routed their army, and many who escaped the sword were 
drowned in attempting to recross the river, while their bodies and 
armour floating down to Rome, brought the first news of the victory. 
Tarquin having forced his enemies into subjection, perfected several 
public works for the convenience and embellishment of the city. Pre- 
parations for erecting the Capitol were made by him. The city was 
fortified by additional stone walls, and the cloacae, or common sewers, 
were constructed for carrying into the Tiber the rubbish and superfluous 
waters of Rome. 

Tarquin was not content with a kingdom without the ensigns of roy- 
alty. In imitation of the Lydian kings, he assumed a crown of gold, 
an ivory throne, a sceptre with an eagle on the top, and robes of purple. 
It was perhaps the splendour of these royalties that first raised the 
envy of the late king's sons, who had now for above thirty-seven years 
quietly submitted to his government. They resolved to destroy him, 
which they effected by hiring two ruffians. The sons of Ancus found 
safety in flight. Thus fell Lucius Tarquinius, surnamed Priscus, to 
distinguish him from one of his successors. He was eighty years of 
age, and had reigned thirty-eight years. 

(B. C. 573.) Servius Tullus, the son-in-law of the late king, by 
marrying his daughter, came to the crown by the Senate's appointment, 
and without attempting to gain the suffrages of the people. Upon being 
acknowledged king, the chief object of his reign was to increase the 
power of the Senate, by depressing that of the people. The populace 
who were unable to see into his designs, conferred upon him the full 
power of settling the taxes. Accordingly he insisted that they should 
pay their taxes by centuries, and that by centuries they should give 
their votes in all public transactions. In former deliberations, each 
citizen gave his suffrage singly, and the numbers of the poor always 
carried it against the power of the rich ; but, by the regulation of Ser- 
vius, the Senate was made to consist of a greater number of centuries 
than all the other classes put together. 

Mention the victories and public works of Tarquin. — What distinction did Tar- 
quin assume? — Who procured his death ? — How long did he reign ? — Who then 
came to the throne ? — What was his chief object? 

1G* 



186 HISTORY OF R03IE. 



CHAPTER 4. 

LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS — END OF THE REGAL 
GOVERNMENT. 

Servius instituted another regulation, called a lustrum.* By this 
all the citizens were to assemble in the Campus Martius, in complete 
armour and in their respective classes, and there to give an exact ac- 
count of their families and fortune. Having enjoyed a long reign, spent 
in settling the domestic policy of the state, he had thoughts of laying 
down his power, and, after having formed the kingdom into a republic, 
to retire into obscurity ; but so generous a design was frustrated ere it 
could be put into execution. 

In the beginning of his reign, he had married his two daughters to 
the two sons of Tarquin. But Lucius placed his whole affections on 
his brother's wife, who answered his passion with sympathetic ardour, 
and they both undertook to murder their respective consorts, and were 
soon after married together. A first crime ever produces a second, and 
they next proceeded to conspire the death of the king, which they 
effected, after he had spent a useful and prosperous reign of forty-four 
years. 

Lucius Tarquinius, afterwards called Superbus, or the Proud, having 
placed himself on the throne, supported his dignity by violence, and 
even refused burial to the late king's body, under pretence of his being 
an usurper. Many looked upon his accession with detestation and 
horror, and this act of cruelty served only to confirm their hatred. 

His chief policy was to keep the people employed in wars or public 
works, in order to divert their attention from his unlawful method of 
coming to the crown. 

He first marched against the Sabines, and reduced them to submis- 
sion. In the mean time many of the discontented patricians, abandon- 
ing their native city, took refuge at Gabii, a city of Latium, about twelve 
miles from Rome. To subdue that city he had recourse to stratagem ; 
he caused his son Sextus to counterfeit desertion, and to seek refuge in 
Gabii. When Sextus thought his authority established, he sent a con- 
fidential slave to his father for instructions. Tarquin made no answer, 
but taking the messenger into the garden he cut down before him the 
tallest poppies. Sextus understood the meaning, and found means to 
destroy or remove, one by one, the principal men of the city ; confisca- 
ting their estates among the people. In the end they fell under the 
power of Tarquin, without his even striking a blow. 

Tarquin undertook to build the Capitol, the foundation of which had 
been laid in a former reign ; but an extraordinary event contributed to 
* A space of five years. 



What design did Servius form? — What occasioned his death?— Who afterwards 
succeeded ?— What was his policy ?— Relate the expedition of Tarquin against the 
Sabines, and against -the city of Gabii. — What event happened to hasten the build- 
ing of the Capitol ? 



DEATH OF LUGRETIA. 187 

hasten the execution of it. A woman in strange attire came to the 
king, offering to sell nine books, said to be composed by herself. Not 
knowing the abilities of the seller, or that she was one of the celebrated 
Sibyls, whose prophecies were never found to fail, Tarquin refused to 
buy them. Upon this she departed, and burning three of her books 
returned again, demanding the same price for the six remaining. Being 
once more despised as an impostor, she again departed, and burning 
three more returned with the remaining three, still asking the same 
price as the first. The king, surprised at her behaviour, consulted the 
augurs, who advised him to purchase them; and the woman, having 
recommended special attention to their contents, suddenly disappeared. 
Tarquin chose proper persons to keep the books, which were deposited 
in a stone chest, and the newly-designed Capitol was thought the 
properest place in which to secure them. 

Tarquin upon some frivolous pretence proclaimed war against the 
Rutuli, and he invested their chief city, Ardea, which lay about sixteen 
miles from Rome. While the army was encamped before the place, 
the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, and Collatinus, a noble Roman, 
with some others, sat drinking in a tent. The discourse turned upon 
wives, each man preferring the beauty and virtue of his own. Colla- 
tinus offered to decide the dispute by putting it to an immediate trial. 
Being heated with wine, they posted to Rome. There they found the 
wife of Collatinus spinning in the midst of her maids, and portioning 
out their tasks. They unanimously gave her the preference, and Sextus 
became so much inflamed with love, that nothing but possession could 
satisfy him. 

He therefore visited her privately a few days after, and Lucretia, 
suspecting nothing, ordered a chamber to be prepared for him. But he 
having found means to convey himself into her chamber at midnight, 
achieved what could not otherwise be obtained. In the morning the 
ravisher returned to the camp ; and Lucretia, sending for her husband 
Collatinus, and Spurius her father, informed them of the indelible dis- 
grace that had befallen the family, and after relating to them some 
particulars and requesting them to avenge her cause, she drew a po- 
niard from beneath her robe, and plunging it into her own bosom, expired 
without a groan. 

Junius Brutus, whose father Tarquin had murdered, caused the body 
of Lucretia to be exposed to the people, calling upon the gods to wit- 
ness that he would be her avenger. Their pity was soon changed into 
rage and revenge. A decree of the Senate banished Tarquin and his 
family for ever from Rome. Thus this monarch, who had now reigned 
twenty-five years, being expelled the kingdom, took refuge with his 
family at Cira, a little city of Etruria. In the mean time the Roman 
army made a truce with the enemy, and Brutus was proclaimed deliv- 
erer of the people. Thus ended with Tarquin, after a continuance of 
245 years, the regal state of Rome. 

Against whom did Tarquin proclaim war ? — What event happened in the camp 
with Sextus, the king's son? — Relate the circumstance which procured the banish- 
ment of Tarquin, and the elevation of Brutus. — How long had the regal state 
existed ? 



188 HISTORY OF ROME. 

CHAPTER 5. 
CONSULS. 

The regal power being overthrown, a republican form of government 
was sustituted. The Senate, however, reserved the greatest share of 
the authority, and decorated their own body with the spoils of deposed 
monarchy. The centuries of the people chose from among the Senators 
two annual magistrates, whom they called Consuls, with power equal 
to that of the regal ; and with the same privileges and ensigns of au- 
thority. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and Collatinus the hus- 
band of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls of Rome. 

But a party was formed in favour of Tarquin, by some young men 
of the principal families of the state, and who had shared in the plea- 
sures and luxuries of the court. This party secretly increased, and what 
may create surprise, the sons of Brutus and the nephews of Collatinus 
were among the number. The conspiracy was discovered by a slave, 
and Brutus was placed as a judge upon the life and death of his own 
children, impelled by justice to condemn, and by nature to spare. Un- 
moved by any motive but that in favour of what he deemed the public 
good, he pronounced upon them the sentence of death, and by his of- 
fice was obliged to see it put in execution, while the multitude looked 
on with mingled sensations of pity, astonishment, and horror. The 
lenity of Collatinus rendered him suspected, and he was deposed from 
the consulship, and banished from Rome. Valerius Publicola was 
chosen in his stead. 

Tarquin's hopes of an insurrection in his favour being thus frustrated, 
he now resolved to force himself upon his former throne by foreign aid. 
He prevailed upon the Veians to assist him, and with a considerable 
army advanced towards Rome. The consuls were not remiss to oppose 
him. Valerius commanded the foot, and Brutus, being appointed to 
head the cavalry, went out to meet him on the Roman border. Aruns, 
the son of Tarquin, who commanded the cavalry for his father, seeing 
Brutus at a distance, resolved by one great attempt to decide the fate 
of the day before the engagement of the armies, when spurring his 
horse he flew to him with fury. Brutus perceived his approach, and 
they met with such ungoverned rage that both fell dead on the field to- 
gether. A bloody battle ensued ; but the Romans, remaining in posses- 
sion of the field of battle, claimed the victory. 

Tarquin next prevailed on Porsenna, one of the kings of Etruria, to 
espouse his cause. This prince, equally noted for his courage and con- 
duct, with a numerous army laid siege to Rome. The siege was car- 
ried on with vigour ; the consuls opposed in vain, and were carried off 
wounded from the field. The Romans, flying in great consternation, 
were pursued by the enemy to the bridge, over which both victors and 

Who were the first consuls, and what was their dignity? — Who formed a con- 
spiracy against the consulship, and what was the event? — Who were chosen 
instead of Collatinus ? — Whose aid did Tarquin obtain against the consuls ? 



DEATH OF TARQUIN. 189 

vanquished were about to enter the city in confusion. All now ap- 
peared lost, when Horatins Codes, who had been placed there as sen- 
tinel to defend it, opposed himself to the torrent of the enemy ; and, 
assisted only by two more, for some time sustained the whole fury of 
the assault, till the bridge was broken down behind him. He then 
plunged into the Tiber and swam back victorious. 

Still, however, Porsenna carried on the siege ; the distress of the 
besieged became insufferable, when another act of fierce bravery brought 
about its safety and freedom. Mutius, a youth of undaunted courage, 
entered, disguised, into the camp of the enemy, resolving to die or to 
kill the king ; but mistaking the secretary for the king, stabbed him to 
the heart. Upon Porsenna's demanding who he was, and the cause of 
so heinous an action, Mutius replied with such undaunted heroism as 
amazed Porsenna. He therefore ordered him back to Rome, and offered 
the besieged conditions of peace. These conditions were accepted, and 
ne retired from the Roman territory. 

The year after the departure of Porsenna, the Sabines invaded the 
Roman territories. The war that ensued was long and bloody; but at 
length the Sabines were compelled to purchase a peace. Tarquin now, 
by means of his son-in-law, Manlius, stirred up the Latins to espouse 
his interest, and took the most convenient opportunity, when the ple- 
beians were at variance with the senators, concerning the payment of 
their debts. These refused to go to the war, unless their debts were 
remitted on their return. The consuls finding their authority insuffi- 
cient, offered the people to elect a temporary magistrate, who should 
possess absolute power, not only over all ranks of the state, but even 
over the laws themselves. 

To this the plebeians readily consented, willing to give up their own 
power for the sake of abridging that of their superiors. Lartius, in 
consequence, was created the first dictator, (B. C. 495,) and he, enter- 
ing upon his office surrounded with lictors and all the ensigns of ancient 
royalty, completed the levies without resistance. Then going forth to 
oppose the enemy, he concluded a truce with them for a year, and re- 
turned with his army. In six months he laid down the dictatorship, 
with the reputation of having exercised it with a blameless lenity. 

The next year required another dictator, and Posthumius was invested 
with the office. He gave the Latins a complete overthrow, and con- 
cluded an advantageous peace. About this time died Tarquin, at the 
advanced age of ninety years, which put an end to all further contests 
for the crown. But though for that time the people submitted to be led 
forth, they yet resolved to free themselves from their yoke; and, as 
they could not obtain a redress of their grievances, they determined to 
<ly from those whom they could not move to compassion. They, there- 
.ore, under the conduct of a plebeian, named Sicinius Vellutus, retired 
„o a mountain, hence called Mons Sacer, within three miles of Rome. 

And what occasioned the death of Brutus? — Who next espoused the cause of 
Tarquin ?— What did he effect?— What act of bravery delivered the city ?— What 
event of consequence followed ? — Who was the first dictator? — Who was next 
invested with the office?— How old was Tarquin at his death?— Under whom did 
the people retire from Rome ? 



190 HISTORY OF ROME. 

Upon the news of this defection, the city was filled with consterna- 
tion. The Senate was not less agitated than the rest. At length it was 
resolved to send a messenger, entreating the people to return home, and 
declare their grievances, promising an oblivion of all that had passed, 
This message not succeeding, Menenius Agrippa, one of the wisest 
and best of the senators, was of opinion that the demands of the peo- 
ple were to be complied with, and ten commissioners were deputed. 
The soldiers gave them a very respectful reception, and the conference 
began. The commissioners employed all their oratory, while Sicinius 
and Lucius Junius, who were speakers for the soldiery, aggravated 
their distresses. 

At length Menenius Agrippa, originally a plebeian, a shrewd man, 
and who knew what kind of eloquence was likely to please, addressed 
them with that celebrated fable which is so finely told by Livy — "In 
times of old when every part of the body could think for itself, they all 
resolved to revolt against the body. They knew no reason, they said, 
why they should toil from morning till night in its service, while the 
body lay at its ease and grew fat upon their labours ; accordingly one 
and all agreed to befriend it no more. The feet vowed they would no 
longer carry the load ; the hands vowed they would not feed it ; and 
the teeth averred they would not chew its food. Thus resolved, they 
all for some time kept their word ; but at length found that, instead of 
mortifying the body, they only undid themselves ; they languished for 
a while, and perceived, when too late, that it was owing to the body 
that they had strength to work, or courage to mutiny." 

This fable had an instantaneous effect upon the people. They cried 
out that Agrippa should lead them back to Rome ; but Junius Brutus 
recommended that, as a safeguard against future resentments, certain 
officers should be created to plead the cause of the people. The senate 
consented that the new officers should be called Tribunes of the People.* 
The Tribunes were at first five in number, but afterwards increased by 
five more. They were annually elected by the people, and almost 
always from their body. When they examined any decree, they an- 
nulled it by the word Veto, "I forbid it," or confirmed it by signing the 
letter T., which gave it validity. This new office being instituted, the 
people, after sacrificing to the gods of the mountain, returned back once 
more in triumph to Rome. 

CHAPTER 6. 

TRIBUNES CREATED, U. C. 260. — AGRARIAN LAW. 

During the late separation tillage had been neglected, and a famine, 
the ensuing season, was the consequence. The people erroneously as- 
cribed the whole of their distress to the avarice of the patricians. But 
plenty soon after appeased them. A fleet of ships, laden with corn 
* So called because chosen by the tribes. 

For what were commissioners appointed ?— What fable did Menenius Agrippa 
relate ?— How did this affect the people ? — What new officers were created ? 



COKIOLANUS 191 

from Sicily, once more raised their spirits. But Coriolarms incurred 
their resentment by insisting that the corn should not be distributed til] 
the grievances of the Senate were removed. For this the tribunes sum- 
moned him to a trial before the people, and Coriolanus was condemned 
to perpetual exile. He returned home followed by the lamentations of 
the most respectable senators and citizens, to take leave of his wife, his 
children, and his mother Veturia, and left the city to take refuge with 
Tullus Attius, a man of great power among the Volsci. 

Tullus provoked the Romans to a quarrel some time afterwards, and 
war being declared on both sides, Coriolanus and Tullus were made 
generals of the Volsci, and accordingly invaded and ravaged the Roman 
territories, and at length invested Rome itself, fully resolved to besiege 
it. It was then that deputies were sent to him with proposals for his 
restoration in case he Would draw off his army. Coriolanus, with the 
sternness of a general, refused their offers. Another embassy was now 
sent conjuring him not to exact from his native city aught but what 
became Romans to grant; but Coriolanus still persisted, and granted 
them only three days for deliberation. In this exigence a more solemn 
deputation was sent, composed of pontiffs, priests and augurs, but in 
vain — they still found him severe and inflexible. 

On their returning without success, the temples were filled with old 
men and women, who, prostrate at the altars, put up their ardent prayers 
for the preservation of their country. At length it was suggested that 
what could not be brought about by the adjuration of the priests might 
be effected by the tears of a wife, or the commands of a mother ; and 
the deputation was generally approved of by the Senate and the people. 
Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, was accompanied by many of the 
principal matrons of Rome, with Volumnia, his wife, and his two chil- 
dren. Coriolanus, who at a distance discovered the mournful train of 
females, was resolved upon giving them a denial ; but when told that 
his mother and his wife were among the number, he instantly came 
down from his tribunal to meet and embrace them. 

At first, the women's tears and embraces took away the power of words, 
and the rough soldier could not refrain from sharing in their distress. 
Coriolanus was much agitated by contending passions ; his mother 
seconded her words by the persuasive eloquence of tears; while his 
wife and children hung around him intreating for protection and pity. 
For a moment he was silent, feeling the strong conflict between honour 
and inclination : at length, as if roused from a dream, he raised his 
mother, who had fallen at his feet, crying out, " Oh, my mother, thou 
hast saved Rome, but lost thy son." He accordingly gave orders to 
draw off the army. Tullus, who had long envied Coriolanus, aggra- 
vated to the Volsci his lenity, and on their return Coriolanus is said to 
have been slain by an insurrection of the people. 

Great were the rejoicings of the people at Rome upon the retreat of 
the Volscian army ; but they were clouded soon after by the intrigues 



What happened to Coriolanus ? — With whom did he take refuge ? — Who besieged 
Rome ? — How did the Romans act in the exigency ? — Who were in the female em- 
bassy from Rome ? — What effect had it upon Coriolanus 1 — What was his fate ? 



192 HISTORY OF ROME. 

of Spurius Cassius, who, wishing to make himself despotic, by means 
of the people, was found guilty of crimes tending towards an alteration 
of the constitution. He was thrown from the Tarpeian Rock, by those 
very people whose interests he had endeavoured to extend. 

The year following, the two consuls of the former year, Manlius and 
Fabius, were cited to appear before the people. The Agrarian law, 
wlrich had been proposed sometime before, for equally dividing the 
lands of the commonwealth among the people, was the object invariably 
pursued ; and they were accused of having made unjustifiable delays 
in putting it off. The Agrarian law was, however, a grant the Senate 
could not think of making to the people. The consuls therefore made 
many delays and excuses ; till at length they were once more obliged 
to have recourse to a dictator; and they fixed upon Quintus Cincinna- 
tus, a man who had for some time given up all views of ambition, and 
retired to his little farm ; where the deputies of the Senate found him 
holding the plough, and in the attire of a husbandman. 

He appeared but little elevated with the addresses of ceremony, and 
the pompous habits they brought him, and testified concern that his aid 
should be wanted. On his leaving he said to his wife, " I fear, my At- 
tilia, that for this year our little fields must remain unsown." Then 
taking a tender leave he departed for the city, where both parties were 
strongly inflamed against each other. However, he sided with neither, 
but instead of gaining the confidence of a faction, seized the esteem of 
all. By threats and well-timed submission he prevailed upon the tri- 
bunes to put off the law for a time. Having, by his wisdom, restored 
tranquillity, he gave up the splendours of ambition to enjoy it with a 
greater relish in his little farm. 

(U. C. 295) Cincinnatus had not long retired from office, when a 
fresh exigence required his assistance; and the M qui and the Vol sci 
were making new inroads into the territories of Rome. Minutius, one 
of the consuls, was sent to oppose them ; but his army was driven into 
a defile between two mountains, from which, except through the enemy, 
there was no egress. This, however, the iEqui had fortified ; and no- 
thing remained to the Roman army but famine or immediate death. 
The Senate turned their eyes upon Cincinnatus, and the messengers 
found him, as before, labouring in his field. On being made dictator 
he appointed an unambitious soldier, named Tarquitus, to be master of 
the horse. 

Upon entering the city the Dictator entreated all those who were 
able to bear arms to repair to the Campus Martius with arms and pro- 
visions for five days. At the head of these he marched all night, and 
arrived early the next morning within sight of the enemy. Upon his 
approach he ordered his soldiers to raise a loud shout, to apprise the 
consul's army of the relief that was at hand. The iEqui were not a 
little amazed when they perceived that Cincinnatus approached, and 

_ What is said of Spurius Cassius ? — What compelled them to have recourse to a 
dictator ? — Whom did they choose ? — What effect had Cincinnatus on the factious 
city ? — What happened after he had retired from office ? — Who was made dictator ? 
—Whither did he march with the army ? 



THE DECEMVIRI. 193 

was making entrenchments beyond them to prevent their escape, and 
inclosing them as they had inclosed the consul. 

To prevent this a furious combat ensued ; but the iEqui, being- 
attacked on both sides, and unable to resist or fly, begged a cessation 
of arms, offering to the dictator his own terms. He gave them their 
lives, and obliged them to pass under the yoke, which was two spears 
set upright, and another across, beneath which the vanquished were to 
pass. The captains and generals he made prisoners of war, being 
reserved to adorn his triumph. The plunder of the enemy's camp he 
gave up entirely to his own soldiers. Thus having rescued a Roman 
army, and defeated a powerful enemy, refusing any part of the spoil, 
he resigned his dictatorship, after having enjoyed it fourteen days. 
The Senate would have enriched him, but he declined their proffers ; 
retiring once more to his farm, content with competence and fame. 

But the clamours for the Agrarian law were now resumed in the city, 
still more fiercely, when Siccius Dentatus, a plebeian, advanced in 
years, but of an admirable person and military deportment, came for- 
ward to enumerate his hardships and his merits ; and his merits more 
than supported his ostentation. He had served his country in the wars 
forty years ; he had been an officer thirty; he had fought one hundred 
and twenty battles ; he had obtained many civic, mural, and golden 
crowns ; and had received forty-five wounds in front, and none be- 
hind. Yet he had never received any share of those lands which were 
won from the enemy, but continued to drag on a life of poverty. A 
case of so much hardship had an effect upon the multitude, and they 
unanimously demanded that the law might be passed, and that such 
merit should not go unrewarded. But the resistance of the young pa- 
tricians prevailed, and their resolution, for the present, put off the Agra- 
rian law. 

CHAPTER 7. 

THE CREATION OF THE DECEMVIRi, U. C. 302 — VIRGINIUS. 

The citizens of every rank began to complain of the arbitrary deci- 
sions of the magistrates, and wished to be guided by a written body of 
laws, which being known might prevent wrongs as well as punish them. 
It was thereupon agreed that ambassadors should be sent to the Greek 
cities in Italy and to Athens, for such laws as experience had found 
equitable. For this purpose three senators were appointed ; and while 
they were upon this commission abroad, a dreadful plague depopulated 
the city at home. In about a year the ambassadors returned with a 
body of laws, which were formed into ten tables. To these two more 
were added, and formed that celebrated code called the Law of the 
Twelve Tables. 

To digest these laws, ten of the principal senators were selected, who 
were called Decemviri, whose power should be absolute and continue 

How did the contest terminate? — How long did Cincinnatus enjoy the dictator- 
ship? — Who enumerated his own hardships, and supported the clamour for tho 
Agrarian law? — For what purpose were commissioners appointed? — What code 
of laws was formed? — For what were the decemviri created ? 
17 



194 HISTORY OF ROME. 

for a year. They agreed to take the reins of government by turns, each 
to administer justice for a day. The first year they performed well, 
and entreating of the Senate a continuance in office, the request was 
granted. But their rapacity became excessive, and they ruled without 
control, being guarded by the lictors, and a numerous crowd of clients 
and dependants. In this gloomy situation of the state, the iEqui and 
Volsci renewed their incursions, and advanced within about ten miles 
of Rome. 

The decemviri divided their army into three parts: one continued with 
Appius to awe the city, one was led against the Volsci, and the other 
against the iEqui. The Roman soldiers had now adopted a method of 
punishing their generals, by suffering themselves to be vanquished in 
the field ; and on this occasion they abandoned their camp on the ap- 
proach of the enemy. The generals were blamed at Rome for the 
treachery of their men ; among the rest, old Siccins Dentatus spoke his 
sentiments with his usual openness, on account of which, he was marked 
by Appius for vengeance. He was appointed legate, and put at the 
head of supplies sent from Rome to reinforce the army. The generals, 
on his arrival, appointed him at the head of a hundred men to examine 
a more commodious place for encampment. The soldiers were assas- 
sins appointed to murder him. Dentatus, on being attacked, determined 
to sell his life as dear as possible. He set his back against a rock, 
and killed no less than fifteen of the assailants, and wounded thirty. 
But some, by throwing javelins upon him at a distance, and others by 
pouring down stones upon him from above, at length despatched him. 

A transaction still more atrocious than the former inspired the citi- 
zens with resolution to break all measures of obedience, so as at last to 
restore freedom. Appius one day saw a maiden of exquisite beauty, 
aged about fifteen. Her charms caught his attention and fired his heart. 
Her name was Virginia ; she was the daughter of Virginius, a centu- 
rion, then with the army in the field. To obtain the object of his pas- 
sion, Appius fixed upon one Claudius, who had long been the minister 
of his pleasures, to assert that the beautiful maid was his slave. Clau- 
dius, acting according to his instructions, seized her, and led the weep- 
ing virgin to the tribunal of Appius, who adjudged her to be delivered 
into the custody and the care of Claudius. But this sentence was re- 
ceived with loud clamours, particularly by the women ; and things now 
threatened an open insurrection. 

An account of the transaction was sent to Virginius, who, getting 
permission to leave the camp, hastened to Rome. The day following 
was fixed for the trial. Claudius, the accuser, began by making the 
demand ; Virginius replied, proving Virginia to be his daughter. The 
people, satisfied of the cruelty of his case, raised an outcry ; but Ap- 
pius confirmed the opinion of Claudius, and adjudged Virginia to him ; 
adding, " Go, therefore, lictors, disperse the multitude, and make room 
for the master to repossess himself of his slave." Virginius, seeing 



What was their power? — What happened in the expedition against the Volsci 
and iEqui? — What was the fate of Dentatus? — What circumstance raised the 
indignation of the people against Appius? — How did Virginius act on this occasion? 



MILITARY TRIBUNES. 195 

that all was over, with the most poignant anguish, took his almost ex- 
piring daughter in his arms and tenderly embraced her. " My dearest 
lost child," said he, " thus alone is it in my power to preserve thy ho- 
nour and thy freedom." So saying, he plunged a weapon into her 
breast. Then drawing it out reeking with blood, he called upon the 
city to strike for freedom. On his return to the army, who were already 
disposed to revolt by the murder of Dentatus and other acts of tyranny, 
they shouted their approbation and decamped, leaving their generals 
behind. They took their station on mount Aventine, whither they had 
retired about forty years before. 

Appius, in the mean time, did all he could to quell the disturbances 
in the city, by urging the punishment of deserters ; but the Senate, far 
from giving him the relief he sought, dispatched messengers to the 
incensed army, offering to restore their former mode of government. 
To this proposal all the people joyfully acquiesced ; and the army 
returned to the city, if not with the ensigns, at least with the pleasure 
of a triumphant entry. Appius died by his own hands in prison, the 
other decemvirs went into exile ; and Claudius, the pretended master 
of Virginia, was ignominiously banished. 

(U. C. 309.) The wars with the iEqui and the Volsci still continued, 
and they at last advanced so far as to make their incursions to the very 
walls of Rome. The tribunes of the people now grew more turbulent; 
they proposed two laws — one to permit plebeians to intermarry with 
the patricians, and the other to permit them to be admitted to the con- 
sulship also. The senators received these proposals with indignation ; 
but at last, finding their resistance only increased the commotions of 
the state, they consented to pass that concerning marriages. With 
respect to the consulship, after many debates, Claudius proposed an 
expedient ; this was to create six or eight governors in the room of con- 
suls, of which one half, at least, should be patricians. This project 
was eagerly embraced by the people. These new magistrates were 
called Military Tribunes. They had the power and ensigns of consuls. 
The first that were chosen, continued in office only about three months ; 
the augurs having found something amiss in the ceremonies of their 
election. 

The military tribunes being deposed, the consuls once more came 
into office ; and, to lighten the weight of business, a new office was 
created, — namely, that of Censors, who were to be chosen every fifth 
year. Their business was to take an estimate of the number and 
estates of the people, to distribute them into proper classes, and to in- 
spect the lives and manners of their fellow-citizens, &c. The first cen- 
sors were Papirius and Sempronius — both patricians ; and from that 
order censors continued to be elected for nearly a hundred years. This 
new creation served to restore peace for some time ; but a famine press- 
ing hard upon the poor, the usual complaints against the rich were 
renewed. 

What effect did it have on the army? — Who entered the city in triumph? — What 
was the fate of Appius? — Why were the military tribunes created? — What wa.s 
their office? — What new officer was created after the military tribunes were 
deposed ? — What was his office ? 



J 96 HISTORY OF ROME. 

Spurius Maelius, a rich knight, who had bought up all the corn of 
Tuscany, inflamed with a desire of becoming powerful, distributed corn 
in great quantities among the poor each day. When he had gained a 
sufficient number of partisans, he procured large quantities of arms, 
and formed a conspiracy. Minutius soon discovered the plot to the 
Senate, who resolved to create a dictator, who should have the power 
<9f quelling the conspiracy without appealing to the people. Cincinna- 
tus, who was now eighty years old, was chosen once more to rescue 
his country from impending danger. He began by summoning Maelius 
to appear, who refused to obey. He next sent Ahala, master of the 
horse, to compel his attendance ; and, on his still refusing, Ahala killed 
him on the spot. The tribunes of the people were much enraged at 
the death of Maelius, and insisted upon restoring the military tribunes, 
and the Senate were obliged to comply. The next year, however, con- 
suls were chosen. 

CHAPTER 8. 

VEIAN WAR — INVASION OF THE GAULS. 

The Veians had long been the rivals of Rome, and it seemed now 
determined that the city of Veii, whatever it might cost, should fall ; 
and the Romans sat down regularly before it. The siege lasted ten 
years. Various were the successes, and many were the commanders 
that directed the siege. Furius Camillus was now created dictator, 
and to him was intrusted the management of the long-protracted war. 
Camillus had, without stratagem or intrigue, raised himself to the 
first eminence in the state. He had been made, some time before, one 
of the censors : he was afterwards a military tribune. His courage 
and abilities in the above offices, made him to be thought most worthy 
to serve his country on the present occasion. Upon his appointment 
numbers flocked to his standard. Conscious that the city could not 
be taken by storm, he opened a passage under ground, which led into 
the midst of the citadel. Thus, like a second Troy, was the city of 
the Veii taken, after a ten years' siege ; and with its spoils enriched 
the conquerors. Camillus triumphed after the manner of the kings of 
Rome. 

Camillus's good fortune attended him in another expedition against 
the Falisci, in which a schoolmaster found means to decoy his scholars 
into the Roman camp, offering to put them into the hands of Camillus, 
as the surest means of inducing the citizens to surrender. The general, 
struck with the treachery of the wretch, ordered him to be stript, his 
hands to be tied behind him, and to be whipped into the town by his own 
scholars. For this generous behaviour in Camillus, the magistrates 
submitted to the Senate, leaving to the general the conditions of th6 
urrender. 



What is related of Spurius Maelius ? — How long was the war with the Veian* 
protracted ? — Who took their city and marched in triumph to Rome ? — Against 
whom did Camillus go with success ? — What generous act is recorded of him ? 



BRENNUS. 197 

The popularity of Camillus proved however but of short duration. 
His demand of a tenth of the spoils to be consecrated to Apollo (accord- 
ing to a vow he had made in the hour of danger), the extraordinary 
display of pomp in which he entered the capital on the day of triumph, 
and the opposition he made to some popular measures, concurred to 
render him an object of jealousy. His enemies charged him with em- 
bezzling the property of the state. Indignant at such groundless accu- 
sation, he retired from Rome before the day of trial, first embracing his 
wife and children. On leaving the city, he turned his face to the capi- 
tol, and entreated the gods that his country might be one day sensible 
of their injustice and ingratitude. So saying he took refuge at Ardea, 
a town at a little distance from Rome. 

The tribunes had soon reason to repent their injustice, and to wish 
for his assistance. The Gauls, about two centuries before, had made 
an irruption from beyond the Alps, and settled in the northern parts of 
Italy. They had been invited over by the deliciousness of the wines, 
and the mildness of the climate. A body of these was now besieging 
Clusium, and the inhabitants entreated the assistance of the Romans. 
Accordingly three young senators were chosen of the family of the 
Fabii. Brennus, the king of the Gauls, received them with a degree 
of complaisance suited to his condition, but observed that the rights 
of valiant men lay in their swords. The three ardent youths became 
the partisans of the Clusians, incited them to arms, and even headed 
their troops in an assault. This violation of honour induced Brennus 
to turn his arms against Rome, who had sanctioned the treachery of 
their ambassadors. 

He marched with his numerous army through the lesser Italian States, 
till he arrived at Alba, not far from the capital, where he completely 
routed the Roman army. Rome now prepared for every extremity ; 
most of the inhabitants fled to the neighbouring towns ; some were 
resolved to await the conqueror's fury ; and the gates were thrown open 
to receive him. But the senators and priests resolved to devote their 
lives to atone for the crimes of the people; and, habited in their robes 
of ceremony, placed themselves in the forum. Brennus was surprised 
to find the city gates open to receive him, and feared a stratagem ; after 
entering the city, he approached the forum, and beheld there the ancient 
senators sitting in profound silence : their appearance awed the barbarous 
enemy into reverence. They mistook them for the tutelary deities of 
the place. But one more forward than the rest stroked the beard of the 
Papyrius, who lifted up his ivory spear and struck the savage to the 
ground. This proved to be the signal for general slaughter, and the 
whole shared the like fate. The fierce invaders pursued their slaughter 
for three days successively, sparing neither sex nor age, and then set 
fire to the city. 

All the hopes of Rome were placed in the Capitol ; Brennus first 
summoned it with threats, and then carried on the siege with vigour. 

What afterwards befel Camillus? — Who invaded the Roman territory? — What 
happened to the city, the senators, and priests ? — With what success did Brennus 
Htorm the Capitol ? 

17* 



198 HISTORY OF ROME. 

But he was soon convinced of the futility of his expectations. He 
next chose a body of men, to ascend the rock by which the Capitol 
might be surprised. The men had even got upon the wall ; the Roman 
sentinel was asleep, their dogs gave no signal, and all seemed an easy 
victory, when the gabbling of some sacred geese saved the Capitol. 
The garrison became awakened, and each snatching a weapon, opposed 
the assailants, and the walls were eleared of the enemy with a most 
incredible celerity. 

From this time, the hopes of the barbarians began to decline, and 
Brennus wished for an opportunity of raising the siege with credit; and 
at length the commanders on both sides came to an agreement that the 
Gauls should immediately quit the city and territories, upon being paid 
a thousand pounds' weight of gold. .When the gold was brought to be 
weighed, the Gauls attempted fraudulently to kick the beam ; the Ro- 
mans complaining of this, Brennus insultingly cast his sword and belt 
into the scale, crying out that the only portion of the vanquished was 
to suffer. While they were debating upon the payment, it was told 
them that Camillus, their old general, was at the head of a large army, 
hastening to their relief, and entering the gates of Rome ; and when 
he arrived soon after at the place of controversy, he demanded the cause 
of the contest, of which being informed, he ordered the gold to be car- 
ried back to the Capitol, saying that his sword alone should purchase 
peace. Upon this a battle ensued ; and the Gauls were routed with 
such terrible slaughter, that the Roman territories were soon cleared of 
their formidable invaders. The city being one continued heap of ruins, 
except the Capitol, and many of its former inhabitants having fled for 
refuge to Veii, the tribunes of the people asked for the removal of the 
poor remains of Rome to Veii. But, by the remonstrances of Camil- 
lus, the people went contentedly to work, and Rome soon began to rise 
from its ashes. 

The people were not ungrateful to Manlius for his bravery in defend- 
ing the Capitol. They built him a house near the place where his 
valour was so conspicuous, and appointed him a public fund for his 
support. But his ambition aspired at the sovereignty of Rome. With 
this view he laboured to ingratiate himself with the populace, paid 
their debts, and railed at the patricians, whom he called their oppres- 
sors. After the people had been filled with sedition and clamour on 
his account, Manlius was brought to answer for his life. The place in 
which he was tried was near the Capitol, where, when he was accused 
of sedition and aspiring at sovereignty, he only turned his eyes, and 
pointing thither, put them in mind of what he had there done for his 
country. At length he was condemned to be thrown headlong from the 
Tarpeian rock ; and the place which had been the theatre of his glory 
became that of his punishment and infamy. Thus the Romans went 
gradually forward with a mixture of turbulence and superstition within 
their walls, and with successful enterprises without. 

Having triumphed over the Sabines, the Etrurians, the Latins, the 



Who routed the enemy and delivered the city ? — What was the fate of Camil- 
lus? 



WAR WITH THE LATINS. 199 

Hernici, the ^qui, and the Volsci, the Romans now began to look for 
greater conquests. They accordingly turned their arms against the 
Samnites, a people descended from the Sabines. Valerius Corvus and 
Cornelius were the two consuls, to whose care it first fell to manage 
this dreadful contention between the rivals. Valerius was one of the 
greatest commanders of his time ; and while his colleague led an army 
to Samnium, the enemy's capital, he marched to relieve Capua, the 
capital of the Campanians. Though the Samnites were the bravest 
men they had ever encountered, the Romans were eventually crowned 
with success. Some time after this, a mutiny arose among the soldiers 
stationed at Capua, who marched with Quintius at their head till they 
came within eight miles of the city. The Senate created Valerius dic- 
tator, and sent him forth with an army to oppose them ; who, by his 
moderation and prudence, repaired this defection, which threatened 
danger to Rome. 

CHAPTER 9. 

WAR WITH THE LATINS AND SAMNITES — PYRRHUS. 

A war between the Romans and the Latins followed soon after. _ As 
their habits, arms, and language were the same, the most exact disci- 
pline was necessary to prevent confusion in the engagement. Orders, 
therefore, were issued, that no soldier should leave his ranks, upon pain 
of death. With these injunctions both armies were drawn out and 
ready, when Merius, the general of the enemy's cavalry, pushing for- 
ward from his ranks, challenged any knight in the Roman army to sin- 
gle combat. A general pause ensued, no soldier daring to disobey the 
orders, till Titus Manlius, son of the consul Manlius, boldly sallied 
forth against his adversary, and the two champions engaged : Manlius 
succeeded in killing his antagonist, and returned in triumph to his 
father's tent. When he was brought before the consul, his father or- 
dered him to be bound to suffer for disobeying his orders. At this 
unnatural mandate, the whole army was struck with horror; but when 
they saw their young champion's head struck off, and his blood stream- 
ing upon the ground", they could no longer contain their execrations and 
groans. 

In the mean time the battle was commenced with mutual fury; and 
as the two armies had often fought under the same leader, they com- 
bated with all the animosity of a civil war. The augurs had foretold 
that whatever part of the Roman army should be distressed, the com- 
mander of that part should devote himself for his country, and die as a 
sacrifice to the immortal gods. Manlius commanded the right wing, 
and Decius the left; after a time the left wing began to give ground, 
and Decius resolved to devote himself for his country. After being 
clothed in a long robe and covering his head, he mounted his horse and 

Repeat the triumphs of the Romans.— Who quelled an insurrection in the army • 
— Who disobeyed the consul's orders in the war with the Latins? — What was his 
punishment ? — What event insured the defeat of the Latins '{ 



200 HISTORY OF ROME. 

drove furiously into the midst of the enemy, till he fell covered with 
wounds. The Roman army considered this as an assurance of success ; 
nor was the superstition of the Latins less influenced. The Romans 
pressed them on every side. A total rout ensued, and scarcely a fourth 
part of the enemy escaped the defeat. 

(U. C.431.) About this time the Roman army sustained a signal 
disgrace from the Samnites; who, by a stratagem, led them into a de- 
file, and surrounded them. The Romans were first obliged to pass 
under the yoke, after having been stripped of all their under garments. 
They were then marched into Capua disarmed, half naked, and burning 
with a desire of retrieving their lost honour. But this calamity was 
transitory ; the state had suffered a diminution of its glory, but not of 
its power. 

Under the conduct of Papirius Cursor, repeated triumphs were gained. 
The Samnites, being driven to extreme distress, had recourse to Pyrrhus, 
king of Epirus, in Greece, who arrived at Tarentum with a large army 
and twenty elephants. Lavinius was sent with a numerous force to 
interrupt his progress. Pyrrhus previously sent an ambassador, pro- 
posing to mediate between the Romans and the Tarentines. Lavinius 
replied that he neither esteemed him as a mediator, nor feared him as 
an enemy. 

In consequence of this, both armies approaching, pitched their tents 
in sight of each other, upon the opposite banks of the river Lyris ; nor 
is it to this day determined, whether the Greek phalanx or the Roman 
legion were preferable. The combat was long in suspense ; but when 
the success seemed doubtful, Pyrrhus sent in his elephants and turned 
the scale of victory ; for the Romans had never before encountered crea- 
tures of such magnitude. A dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued. 
Night put an end to the combat ; and Pyrrhus, who had been wounded, 
was heard to exclaim that another such a victory would ruin his whole 
v.rmy. 

The next day, viewing the field of battle, he regarded with admira- 
tion the bodies of the Romans who were slain having all their wounds 
in front, and their countenances marked with a noble resolution; he 
was heard to exclaim, " Had I the Romans for soldiers, with what ease 
could a conquer the world !" After this victory, Pyrrhus was still will- 
ing to negotiate a peace, and sent his friend Cineas, the orator; but, 
with all his art, he found the Romans, with a haughtiness little ex- 
pected, insisting that Pyrrhus should evacuate Italy, previous to a 
commencement of a treaty of peace. 

Cineas returned to his master, extolling the virtues and grandeur of 
the Romans. The Senate, he said, appeared an assembly of demi- 
gods, and the city a temple for their reception. Notwithstanding the 
failure of this embassy, Pyrrhus attempted to renew the negotiation, 
when Fabricius arrived at his camp, relative to an exchange of prison- 

What disgrace did the Roman army sustain ? — To whom did the Samnites apply 
for help ? — What reply did Lavinius make to the ambassador of Pyrrhus ? — For 
whom did victory decide in the engagement? — Whom did Pyrrhus send to treat 
with the Romans ? — With what success ? 



PYKRHUS. 201 

ers. Pyrrhus received him with kindness, and offered him rich pre- 
sents, which the Roman refused. The king then tried the equality of 
his temper, by the sudden appearance of an elephant from behind the 
tapestry. Fabrieius looked unmoved upon the danger, his fidelity was 
impregnable ; Pyrrhus, pleased to find so much virtue in one he had 
considered as a barbarian, released the Roman prisoners to Fabrieius. 

(U. C. 474.) By this time the Roman army was recovered from its late 
defeat, and Sulpitius and Decius, the consuls for the following year, 
were placed at its head. Both armies met near the city of Asculum, 
and though the numbers were nearly equal, the Grecian discipline, aided 
by the elephants, prevailed. The next season brought fresh succours 
from Rome. While the two armies were approaching, a letter was 
brought to Fabrieius, from the king's physician, importing that for a 
proper reward he would take off the king by poison. Fabrieius felt the 
indignity of the base proposal, and despatched letters to Pyrrhus by 
an Epirot prisoner informing him of the treachery. So deeply was the 
king impressed with the generosity of this act, that he is said to have 
exclaimed, " Admirable Fabrieius, it would be as easy to turn the sun 
from his course as thee from the path of honour." Not to be outdone 
in magnanimity, he sent to Rome all his prisoners without ransom, and 
again desired to negotiate a peace ; but the Romans still refused upon 
any other conditions than had been offered before. 

After an interval of two years, Pyrrhus, having increased his army by 
new levies, attempted to surprise the enemy by night ; but his men lost 
their way, and they fell in with the Roman camp. A general engage- 
ment ensuing, Pyrrhus, finding the balance of the victory turning 
against him, had recourse to his elephants. But the Romans threw 
lights, made of balls composed of flax and rosin, against them, which 
drove them back with terror and confusion upon their own army. Pyrr- 
hus not only lost twenty-three thousand of his best soldiers, but his 
camp was also taken. This served as a new lesson to the Romans, and 
they learned to model and intrench their camps after the Grecian ex- 
ample. This signal victory was obtained by Curius Dentatus, and it 
obliged their renowned leader to return with precipitation, leaving only 
a garrison for the defence of Tarentum. 

Thus ended the war with Pyrrhus, after six years' continuance. The 
Tarentines, who were the promoters of the war, being oppressed both 
by the garrison and by the Romans who attacked them, applied to the 
Carthaginians who blocked up their port, and thus this people were 
now contended for by three different armies. At length the Romans 
brought over the garrison to their interest, and became masters of the 
cily,°and thus was reduced the whole of the Italian peninsula. 

What happened to Fabrieius in Pyrrhus's camp? — On what occasion was the 
magnanimity of Fabrieius. conspicuous ? — What signal victory had the Romans, 
and by whom obtained ?— Whom did it compel to retreat ?— How long had the war 
with Pyrrhus continued ? — Who gained oossession of Tarentum ? 



202 HISTORY OF ROME. 

CHAPTER 10. 
FIRST PUNIC WAR, B. C. 264. 

Being free from all rival pretensions at home, the Romans began to 
pant after foreign conquests. The Carthaginians at that time possessed 
the greatest part of Sicily, and, like the Romans, only wanted an op- 
portunity of embroiling the natives, in order to become masters of the 
whole island ; which opportunity at length offered. Hiero, king of 
Syracuse, entreated aid from Carthage against the Mamertines ; and 
the latter, to save themselves from ruin, sought the protection of Rome. 
The Romans, despising such an alliance, instead of professing to assist 
them, boldly declared war against Carthage; alleging as a reason, the 
assistance which that state had lately sent to the southern parts of Italy 
against the Romans. Thus commenced the first Punic war. 

The Romans had no fleet, or at least what deserved that title, which 
seemed to be an insurmountable obstacle to their ambition ; while the 
Carthaginians had the entire command at sea, and kept all the mari- 
time towns under obedience. But a Carthaginian vessel, accidentally 
driven on shore in a storm, served the Romans as a model, who applied 
themselves diligently to maritime affairs, and built a considerable fleet 
with great expedition. The consul Duillius first ventured to sea with 
his newly-constructed armament, and he gained a naval victory over 
the Carthaginians. In this engagement the Carthaginians lost fifty of 
their ships, and what they valued more, the undisturbed sovereignty of 
the sea. 

But the conquest of Sicily was to be obtained only by humbling the 
power of Carthage at home, and for that reason Regulus and Manlius 
were sent with a fleet of three hundred sail to Africa to make the in- 
vasion. Regulus was reckoned the most consummate warrior that 
Rome could then produce, and a professed example of frugal severity. 
His patriotism was even greater than his temperance ; for all the pri- 
vate passions seemed extinguished in him, or swallowed up by one 
great ruling affection, the love of his country. 

The two generals set sail with their fleet, which was the greatest 
that had then left an Italian port, carrying a hundred and forty thousand 
men. 

They were met by the Carthaginians, with a fleet equally powerful, 
and men more used to naval affairs. An engagement ensued, in which 
the Romans were victorious ; the enemy's fleet was dispersed, and fifty- 
four of their vessels were taken. (B. C. 245.) The consequence of 
this victory was an immediate descent upon the coast of Africa, and the 
capture of the city Clupea, together with twenty thousand men, who 
were made prisoners of war. The Senate, being informed of these 

What occasioned the first Punic war ?— What obstacles had the Romans to their 
ambition ?— How did they surmount it ?— Who gained a naval victory ? — What 
generals were sent to invade Africa ? — What were the earliest results of the expe- 
dition ? 



PUNIC WAR. 203 

great successes, commanded Manlius back to Italy, to superintend the 
Sicilian war, and directed that Regulus should continue in Africa, to 
prosecute his victories there. 

In another battle the Carthaginians were again defeated, and some 
of their best troops cut off. More than eighty of their towns had sub- 
mitted to the Romans. In this distress, the Carthaginians obtained 
from Laced semon a general named Xantippus, a man of great expe- 
rience. Under his command an engagement took place, in which, 
after an obstinate resistance, the Romans were defeated with dreadful 
slaughter, and Regulus himself was taken prisoner. Several other dis- 
tresses of the Romans followed soon after this. They lost their fleet 
in a storm; and Agrigentum, their principal town in Sicily, was taken 
by Carthalo, the Carthaginian general. Another fleet, which they un- 
dertook to build, shared the fate of the former. 

The Carthaginians, however, suffered losses in Sicily, which more 
than counterbalanced their triumphs in Africa, and they were desirous 
of a new treaty for peace. Regulus, after having been kept prisoner for 
four years, was sent with their ambassador to Rome, promising to return 
in case of being unsuccessful — and he was given to understand that his 
life depended on his success. He was received with the acclamations 
of his friends ; but he refused to enter the gates. The Senate being 
assembled, Regulus opened his commission, and the Carthaginian am- 
bassadors seconded his proposals. The Senate were inclined for 
peace; but Regulus dissuaded them from it, and obstinately persisted 
in keeping his promise to return ; and, though apprised of the tortures 
that awaited him, without bidding his friends or family farewell, he 
departed with the ambassadors. On his arrival at Carthage, his eye- 
lids were cut off and he was remanded to prison : whence, in a few 
days, he was taken out and exposed to the burning sun. After this he 
was put into a barrel stuck with spikes, in which he was kept till he 
died. 

Both sides renewed the war with greater animosity. And at length 
the perseverance of the Romans was crowned with success, and the 
Carthaginians were obliged to sue for peace ; which Rome thought 
proper to grant. Among° other things it was stipulated that the Car- 
thaginians should pay down a thousand talents to defray the expenses 
of the war, and two thousand two hundred more within ten years ; that 
they should quit Sicily and all the islands they possessed near it ; that 
they should never make war against the allies of Rome, &c. Thus 
ended the first Punic war, which had lasted twenty-four years. 
(B. C. 241.) 

The war between Carthage and Rome being ended, a profound peace 
ensued, and for six years after the temple of Janus was shut up for the 
second time since the building of the city. Being thus in friendship 
with all nations, the Romans cultivated the arts of peace with diligence 
While they were thus engaged, war broke out between them and the 

What disasters did the Roman army meet with ? — Who was sent to negotiate 
with the Romans ?— What was the result ?— What was the end of Regulus?— How 
•lid this war terminate ? — What date ? — How did the Romans employ the peace ? 



204 HISTORY OF ROME. 

Illyrians. The Romans were victorious, and the Illyrians were forced 
to conclude a peace upon advantageous terms for them. 

The Gauls next incurred the displeasure of Rome. These barbarians 
chinking a time of peace, when the troops were disbanded, the propei 
season for new irruptions, invited fresh forces from beyond the Alps, 
and entering Etruria wasted all with fire and sword, till they came 
within three days' journey of Rome. By the superior skill of the Ro- 
man generals, the Gauls were surrounded, and a miserable slaughter 
ensued, in which forty thousand were slain, and ten thousand taken 
prisoners. Another victory soon after gained by Marcellus over the 
Gauls, and in which he killed their king, Viridomarus, compelled them 
to sue for peace, the conditions of which greatly enlarged the empire. 

CHAPTER 11. 
THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. 

The Carthaginians, having made peace solely because they were 
unable to continue the war, took the earliest opportunity of breaking 
the treaty. They besieged Saguntum, a city of Spain, then in alliance 
with the Romans. Consequently ambassadors were sent from Rome 
to Carthage, complaining of this infraction of their treaty ; and requi- 
ring that "Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, who had advised this 
measure, should be delivered up to them. This being refused, both 
sides prepared for a second Punic war. The Carthaginians intrusted 
the management of it to Hannibal, who had been made the sworn foe 
of Rome almost from his infancy. On his first appearance in the field, 
he united in his person the most masterly method of commanding with 
the most perfect obedience to his superiors. Thus he was equally be- 
loved by his generals, and by the troops he was appointed to command. 
He was of an invincible spirit; was equally patient of heat and cold, 
and was esteemed the most skilful commander of antiquity. 

Having overrun all Spain, he resolved to carry the war into Italy. 
For this purpose, leaving Hanno with sufficient force to guard his con- 
quests in Spain, he set out for Italy, with an army of fifty thousand 
foot, and nine thousand horse. After a march of ten days, attended 
with extreme dangers, he arrived at the foot of the Alps ; and at the 
end of fifteen days more, spent in crossing the Alps, he found himself 
in the plains of Italy, with about half his army ; the other half had 
died of the cold, or had been cut off by the natives. When the Ro- 
mans heard that Hannibal was crossing the Alps, the Senate sent 
Scipio to oppose him ; but the Romans were defeated on the banks of 
the Ticinus. Hannibal took the most prudent precautions to increase 
his army, giving orders always to spare the possessions of the Gauls : 
and this so pleased that simple people, that they flocked to his stand 
ard with alacrity. 

Over whom did they gain a conquest ?— What victory soon followed ?— How did 
the Carthaginians break the treaty with the Romans ? — To whom did the Cartba 
ginians entrust the war ? — What conquest had Hannibal already gained ? 



HANNIBAL. 205 

A second battle was fought upon the banks of the river Trebia. The 
Romans were totally routed, with a loss of twenty-six thousand, who 
were either slain by the enemy, or drowned in the river. The third 
defeat the Romans sustained, was at the lake of Thrasymene. Han- 
nibal had disposed his troops on the hills that surround the lake, in a 
disposition every way favourable for the Carthaginians. Flaminius, 
the Roman general, led his men to attack him from the valley beneath. 
The fortune of the day was such as might be expected, from the con- 
duct of the two generals. About fifteen thousand Romans, with Fla- 
minius himself, fell in the valley, and six thousand more were obliged 
to yield themselves prisoners of war. 

Upon the news of this defeat, after the general consternation was 
allayed, the Senate elected Fabius Maximus, as commander, with abso- 
lute authority. He was a man of great courage, with a happy mixture 
of caution, which enabled him to harass the Carthaginians without 
hazarding a battle. Indeed, he had at one time actually inclosed Han- 
nibal in the Casiline defile at the mountainous passes on the borders 
of Campania, where it was impossible to winter ; nor could he extri- 
cate his army without imminent danger. In this exigence he ordered 
a number of small fagots and lighted torches to be tied to the horns of 
two thousand oxen, which should be driven towards the enemy. These 
advancing up the mountains, seemed to fill the whole neighbouring 
forest with fire, which so terrified the sentinels, who were placed to 
guard the approaches of the mountains, that they fled in consternation. 
By this stratagem Hannibal escaped with his army. Fabius being 
obliged to resign his office, was succeeded in the command by Teren- 
tius Varro, a man sprung from the dregs of the people ; and with him 
was joined iEmilius Paulus, of a disposition entirely opposite to his 
plebeian colleague. 

The Romans again resolved to meet Hannibal. A battle was fought 
near the village of Cannae, in which the Romans, through the temerity 
of Varro, lost 50,000 men, and so many knights, that it is said Hanni- 
bal sent three bushels of the gold rings worn by those of this order to 
Carthage. (B. C. 203.) The brave ^Emilius also was slain in the 
engagement. By this victory Hannibal became complete master of the 
south of Italy, and some historians believe, that if he had advanced 
immediately after the victory, Rome itself would have fallen. A short 
time after, Varro arrived at the city, having left behind him the wretched 
remains of his army. As he had been the principal cause of the late 
calamity, it was natural to suppose that the Senate would severely 
reprimand the rashness of his conduct. But far otherwise ! The Ro- 
mans flocked out to meet him, and the Senate returned him thanks that 
he had not despaired of the safety of Rome. Fabius and Marcellus 
were appointed to lead the armies ; and though Hannibal again offered 
them peace, they refused it, except upon condition that he should quit 
Italy. 

What victories did he gain over the Romans ? — With what success did Fabius 
Maximus oppose Hannibal ? — What stratagem did the Carthaginians use ? — What 
was tne result of the battle of Cannae ? 

18 



206 HISTORY OP ROME. 

Hannibal, either finding it impossible to march directly to Rome, or 
willing to give his forces rest after his victory, led them to Capua. — 
This city had long been considered as the nurse of luxury, and the cor- 
rupter of all military virtue. Here a new scene of pleasure opened to 
his barbarian troops, who, from being hardy veterans, became debauched 
rioters. The senators of Carthage, envious of the glory that Hannibal 
had acquired, refused to send him the reinforcements necessary to secure 
his conquests. And now fortune seemed turned against him. His first 
loss was at the siege of Nola, where Marcellus, the Prsetor, made a 
successful sally, and soon after he induced a large body of Numidian 
and Spanish cavalry to desert to the Romans. 

For years after, Hannibal fought with various success ; Marcellus, 
his opponent, sometimes gaining and sometimes losing the advantage, 
without coming to any decisive engagement. The Senate of Carthage 
sent his brother Asdrubal to his assistance, with a body of forces drawn 
out of Spain. But he was intercepted in. his march by the consuls 
Livius and Nero, and both he and his whole army were cut off. Nero 
ordered Asdrubal's head to be thrown into his brother Hannibal's camp, 
who was impatiently waiting the arrival of these succours. The Car- 
thaginian general now began to perceive the downfall of Carthage, and 
he observed with a sigh, that fortune seemed fatigued with granting her 
favours. Success now attended the Roman arms in other parts. . Mar- 
cellus took the city of Syracuse and put the inhabitants to the sword. 

Scipio Africanus, returning from the conquests of Spain, in which 
country he had been pro-consul, was made consul at the age of twenty- 
nine. He resolved to carry the war into Africa, and while the Cartha- 
ginians kept an army near Rome, to make them tremble for their own 
capital. Scipio was not long in Africa without employment ; Hanno 
opposed him, but was defeated and slain. Syphax, the usurper of 
Numidia, led up a large army against him, and in an engagement lost 
40,000 killed, and 6,000 taken prisoners. The Carthaginians, terrified 
at their repeated defeats, sent a deputation to Hannibal, with a positive 
command for him to return and oppose the Roman general, who at that 
time threatened Carthage with a siege. 

Hannibal obeyed the orders of his infatuated country with the sub- 
mission of the meanest soldier, and arrived in Africa to meet Scipio. — 
An engagement soon took place between the two armies, in which the 
Carthaginians were totally routed, having 20,000 killed, and as many 
taken prisoners. Hannibal, who had done all that a great and an un- 
daunted general could perform, fled with a small body of horse to Adri- 
metum ; fortune seeming to delight in confounding his ability, his 
valour and experience. This victory brought on a peace. By Hanni- 
bal's advice, the Carthaginians submitted to the conditions which the 
Romans dictated, not as rivals, but as sovereigns ; and thus ended the 
second Punic war, seventeen years after it had begun. (B. C. 188.) 

In what city did Hannibal rest his troops ? — What disasters followed ? — What 
happened to Hannibal's brother ? — What city did the Romans take ? — Who com- 
manded the Romans in Africa, and threatened Carthage with a siege ? — How did 
this war terminate ? — How long had it lasted ? 



DEATH OF HANNIBAL. 207 

CHAPTER 12. 
WAR WITH PHILIP, KING OF MACEDON. 

While the Romans were engaged with Hannibal, they carried on 
also a vigorous war against Philip, king of Macedonia, who, after 
several defeats and considerable losses, was obliged to beg a peace, 
upon condition of paying a thousand talents. Antiochus, king of Syria, 
was next brought to submit to the Roman arms ; after embassies on the 
one side and the other, war was declared against him, five years after 
the conclusion of the Macedonian war. In a battle near Magnesia, in 
Lesser Asia, Scipio gave him a complete overthrow ; and being re- 
duced to the last extremity, he was glad to procure peace from the 
Romans upon their own terms, which were to pay 15,000 talents, to 
quit his possessions in Europe, and in Asia on the hither side of Mount 
Taurus, — to give twenty hostages as pledges of his fidelity, and to 
deliver up Hannibal, the inveterate enemy of Rome, who had taken 
refuge at his court. 

Hannibal, whose destruction was one of the articles of this extorted 
treaty, being sure of finding no safety or protection with Antiochus, 
departed by stealth, and took refuge at the court of Prusias, king of 
Bithynia. The Romans, with a vindictive spirit utterly unworthy of 
them, sent iEmilius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand 
him of this king, who, fearing the resentment of Rome, and willing to 
conciliate their friendship by this breach of hospitality, placed a guard 
over Hannibal with an intent to deliver him up. The poor old general, 
thus implacably persecuted from one country to another, finding every 
method of safety cut off", destroyed himself by poison, which he carried 
about with him secreted in the hollow of a ring. 

A second Macedonian war was soon after proclaimed against Per- 
seus, the son of Philip, (B. C. 170,) who had been obliged to beg 
peace of the Romans. During the course of this war, which continued 
about three years, opportunities were offered him of cutting off the 
Roman army ; but being ignorant how to take advantage of their rash- 
ness, he spent the time in empty overtures for peace. At length JEmi- 
lius gave him a decisive overthrow. He fled into Crete, but he was 
obliged to surrender himself, and to grace the splendid triumph of the 
Roman general. 

About this time, Masinissa, the Numidian, made some incursions 
into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, who attempted to repel 
the invasion. This brought on a war between them and that monarch ; 
while the Romans, who pretended to consider this conduct of theirs as 
an infraction of the treaty, sent Cato the Censor, with some other depu- 
ties, to make a complaint. Through the influence of these ambassa- 
dors, war was declared between Rome and Carthage ; and the consuls 
set out with a thorough resolution utterly to demolish Carthage. 



How did the war with Philip end ? — What was the deplorable end of Hannibal ? 
»— Relate the war with Perseus. — What caused another rupture with Caithage f 



208 HISTORY OF ROME. 

Tlie wretched Carthaginians attempted to soften the victors by sub- 
mission ; but they received orders to leave the city, which was to bo 
levelled to the ground. They implored with tears and lamentations for 
a respite from such a hard sentence ; but finding the consuls inexorable, 
they prepared to suffer the utmost extremities, and to fight to the last 
for their seat of empire. Asdrubal, who had been lately condemned 
for opposing the Romans, was now taken from prison to head their 
army ; and such preparations were made, that when the consuls came 
before the city, they met with such resistance as quite dispirited their 
forces. Several engagements were fought before the walls with disad- 
vantage to the assailants ; but at length Himilco Pharneas, the master 
of the Carthaginian horse, deserted to the Romans, and the unhappy 
townsmen saw the enemy approach ; the walls which led to the haven 
were soon demolished, and the forum itself was taken, and the most 
dreadful carnage ensued. The citadel soon after surrendered at dis- 
cretion. 

All was now subdued but the temple, which was defended by 
deserters from the Roman army, and those who had been most forward 
to undertake the war. These expecting no mercy, set fire to the build- 
ing, and voluntarily perished in the flames. (B. C. 146.) This was the 
end of one of the most renowned cities in the world, after it had rival- 
led Rome above one hundred years. This conquest of Carthage was 
soon followed by that of Corinth, one of the noblest cities of Greece, 
which city was taken and burned by the consul Mummius. Scipio also 
laid siege to Numantia, the strongest city of Spain, and the wretched 
inhabitants, to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy, set fire to the 
city, and perished in the flames.* 

(B. C. 132.) The Romans being now left without a rival, the 
triumphs and spoils of Asia introduced a taste of splendid expense, 
and this produced avarice and inverted ambition. The two Gracchi 
were the first who saw this strange corruption among the great, and 
resolved to repress it by renewing the Licinian law, which had enacted, 
that no person in the state should rent more than 500 acres of the pub- 
lic land. The above law, though at first carried on with proper mode- 
ration, greatly disgusted the rich, who endeavoured to persuade the 
people that the proposer aimed only at disturbing the government and 
hrowing all things into confusion. But Tiberius Gracchus, the elder 
of the two, who was a man of the greatest eloquence of his time, 
easily removed these impressions from the minds of the people ; and 
at length the law was passed. 

On the death of Attalus, king of Pergamus, who had made the Ro- 
mans his heirs, Gracchus proposed, that the money so left should be 
divided among the poor. This caused still greater disturbances than 
before. The Senate assembled upon the occasion. While Gracchus 

* See engraving at the beginning of the History of Rome. 

How did the Carthaginians act on the occasion ? — Who defended the temple ? — 
What other cities were taken ? — What effect had this prosperous peace on the 
Romans? — Who renewed the Licinian law? — What was the end of Tiberius 
Gracchus ? 



DEATH OF CAIUS GRACCHUS. 209 

was debating- before the people in the Capitol, he found his speech en- 
tirely interrupted by the clamour raised by the clients of the great on 
one side, and by that of the favourers of the law on the other. He 
raised his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was in danger, and 
in endeavouring- to escape he was killed by Saturnius, one of his col- 
leagues in the tribuneship. (B. C. 130.) The persons of the tribunes 
were held sacred, and therefore the murderer was obliged to quit Rome 
to avoid the reproaches and vengeance of the people. The stings of 
conscience scon broke down his health, and he died in all the horTors 
of despair. 

Soon after the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, the Romans were 
alarmed by a formidable insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who 
seized the city of Enna, and chose Eunus, one of their number, for their 
king. For six years the new monarch maintained a fierce and desperate 
war against superior forces, but at length he was taken and cruelly put 
to death. Caius Gracchus was but twenty-one at the death of his 
brother Tiberius. For some time he lived in retirement, unseen and 
forgotten, employing his solitude in the study of eloquence. When he 
thought himself qualified to serve his country, he obtained the quaestor- 
ship to the army in Sardinia, and soon after the tribuneship ; he cited 
before the people, Popilius, his brother's most inveterate enemy, who, 
rather than stand the event of the trial, chose to go into banishment. 
He next procured an edict, granting the freedom of the city to the in- 
habitants of Latium, and soon after to all the people on the hither side 
of the Alps. He then proceeded to an inspection into the late corrup- 
tions of the Senate ; and the whole of that body being convicted of 
bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices, a law was made, transferring 
the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the Senate to the 
knights. 

Gracchus, being grown by these means, not only powerful, but 
popular, was the object at which the Senate aimed all their resentment ; 
for standing a third time for the tribuneship, he was rejected. And soon 
after one of his lictors, at a controversy, calling some of the opposite 
party " factious citizens," was instantly murdered. Gracchus, who saw 
the consequences that were likely to ensue, reprimanded his party for 
their rashness, and led his followers to Mount Avenline; but being de- 
serted by many of his friends, and hotly pursued by his enemies, and 
seeing no way of escape, he prevailed upon an attendant to despatch 
him. The pursuers coming up, cut off his head and placed it for a 
while, as a trophy, on a spear. 

Thus died Caius Gracchus. He is usually impeached by historians 
as guilty of sedition ; but from what we see of his character, the dis- 
turbance of public tranquillity was rather owing to his opposers, and to 
the injustice of the Senate, than to him. Indeed this body, once so 
venerable, was now to be distinguished from the rest of the people only 
by their superior luxury ; and ruled the commonwealth by an authority 



What happened in Sicily to alarm the Romans ? — In what manner did Caius 
Gracchus gain popularity ? — Mention the disastrous end of Caius Graechu». — How 
do historians speak of Gracchus ? 

18* 



210 HISTORY OF ROME. 

gained from riches and mercenary dependencies. In short, the empire 
at this period came under the government of a hateful aristocracy, and 
nothing can be more dreadful to a thinking mind, than the government 
of Rome from this period till it found refuge under the protection of 
Augustus. 

CHAPTER 13. 

JUGURTHIAN WAR— MARIUS — SYLLA. 

(B.C. 119.) While the Romans were in this state of deplorable 
corruption at home, they were successful in their transactions with 
foreign powers. Among other victories, Jugurtha, king of Numidia, 
had been entirely overthrown. He was the illegitimate grandson of 
Masinissa, who sided against Hannibal with Rome. He was educated 
with the two young princes, who were left to inherit the kingdom, and 
being superior in abilities to bo*th, and greatly in favour with the people, 
he murdered Hiempsal, the elder son, and made the same attempt on 
Adherbal, the younger, who escaped and fled to the Romans for succour. 
Jugurtha, sensible how much avarice and injustice had crept into the 
Senate, sent his ambassadors to Rome with large presents, which so 
successfully prevailed, that the Senate decreed him half the kingdom, 
thus acquired by murder and usurpation. But Jugurtha resolved to 
possess himself of the whole, and he succeeded in murdering Adherbal. 

The Roman people who had still some generosity remaining, unani- 
mously complained of his treachery, and procured a decree that Jugur- 
tha should be summoned in person before them to give an account of 
all such as had accepted bribes. Jugurtha made no great difficulty in 
throwing himself upon the clemency of Rome, but not giving the peo- 
ple satisfaction, he had orders to depart from the city, and Albanus the 
consul was sent with an army to follow him ; who giving up the direc- 
tion of it to Aulus, his brother, the Romans were compelled to hazard 
a battle, and the whole army, to avoid being cut to pieces, was obliged 
to pass under the yoke. 

In this condition Metellus, the succeeding consul, found affairs upon 
his arrival in Numidia; officers without confidence — an army without 
discipline — and an enemy ever watchful and intriguing. However, 
by his great attention to business, and by his integrity, which shudder- 
ed at corruption, Jugurtha, in the space of two years, was overthrown 
in several battles, forced out of his own dominions, and constrained to 
beg a peace. But Metellus was frustrated in his expectations of an 
easy and certain victory, by the intrigues of Caius Marius, his lieuten- 
ant, who came in to reap that harvest of glory which the other's industry 
had sown. Caius Marius was born in a village near Arpinum, of poor 
parents, and he was a man of extraordinary stature, incomparable 
strength, and undaunted bravery. When Metellus was obliged to solicit 
at Rome for a continuance of his command, Marius resolved to stand 

What was ihe state of Rome at this time ? — What is told of Jugurtha, king of 
Numidia ? — What disgrace did the Roman army sustain ? — What advantages did 
Metellus gain ? — Who next obtained the consulship ? 



MARIUS. 211 

for it himself, and contrary to the expectation and interest of the nobles, 
he obtained it. 

Marius quickly made himself master of the cities which Jugurtha had 
still remaining in Numidia. This unfortunate prince then had recourse 
for assistance to Bocchus, king of Mauritania. But after several signal 
defeats, in one of which not less than ninety thousand of the Moorish 
army were slain, Bocchus, not thinking it expedient to hazard his own 
crown to protect that of his ally, sent ambassadors to Rome imploring 
protection. The senate granted the suppliant, not their friendship, but 
their pardon. However, he was given to understand, some time after, 
that the delivering up of Jugurtha to the Romans would in some measure 
conciliate their favour and soften their resentment. Accordingly, by 
his treachery, Jugurtha was made prisoner, and carried by Marius to 
Rome, loaded with chains. He did not long survive his overthrow, 
being condemned by the Senate to be starved to death in prison. 

By this and two succeeding victories over the Gauls, who had invaded 
Italy, Marius, having rendered himself very formidable to distant 
nations in war, became soon after much more dangerous to his fellow 
citizens in peace ; the strength which he had given the popular party 
every day grew more conspicuous. The Italians being frustrated in 
their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome by the intrigues of the 
senate, resolved upon gaining it by force. (B. C. 90.) This gave rise to 
the Social War, which having raged with doubtful success for two 
years, the Senate began to reflect that, whether conquered or conquerors, 
the power of the Romans was in danger of being destroyed. But by 
giving the right of citizenship to such of the Italian states as had not 
revolted, and soon after offering it to those who would lay down their 
arms, peace was restored. But the states not being empowered to vote 
till all the other tribes had given their suffrages, had but little weight 
in the constitution. 

The Roman arms were next turned against Mithridates, the most 
powerful and warlike monarch of the East. Sylla was appointed to 
command the expedition, but Marius succeeded in getting the appoint- 
ment reversed, and the command of the army appointed to oppose 
Mithridates was transferred from Sylla to Marius. The officers sent 
from Rome by Marius, to take command in his name, were slain ; and 
the soldiers, with Sylla at their head, marched to the city, and entered 
it sword in hand, as into a place taken by storm. Marius and Sulpi- 
cius, at the head of a tumultuary body of partisans, attempted to oppose 
their entrance, but they were forced to flee with precipitation, and to 
leave Sylla master of the city, who began by new-modelling the laws, 
so as to favour his outrages. 

Marius, at the age of seventy, was driven from Rome and declared 
a public enemy. After wandering some time in the most deplorable 
condition, he concealed himself in the marshes of Minturnae, where he 
continued a whole night in a quagmire. At break of day, he made 

Who implored the protection of Rome ? — What misfortune befel Jugurtha ? — 
What occasioned the Social War, and what put an end to it ? — What did Sylla at 
the head of the army ? — What befel Marius ? 



212 HISTORY OF ROME. 

towards the sea side, in hopes of finding a ship to facilitate his escape ; 
but being discovered, he was conducted to a neighbouring town with a 
halter round his neck; and without clothes, and covered with mud, 
was sent to prison. 

The governor soon after sent a Cimbrian slave to despatch him ; but 
the barbarian no sooner entered the dungeon for this purpose than he 
stopped short, intimidated by the dreadful visage and awful voice of the 
fallen general. The slave threw down the sword, and rushing from 
the prison, <*ried out that he found it impossible to kill him. The go- 
vernor, considering the fear of the slave as an omen in the unhappy 
exile's favour, once more gave him his liberty. After wandering about 
from place to place for some time, he was joined by his son ; and they 
were informed that Cinna, one of their party, who had remained at 
Rome, had put himself at the head of a large army. 

It was not long before they joined their forces at the gates of Rome. 
Marius entered the city at the head of his guards, and massacred all 
who had been obnoxious to him, without remorse or pity, and then 
made himself consul with Cinna. After committing the most dreadful 
cruelties, he died soon after. These accounts being brought to Sylla, 
he concluded a peace with Mithridates, and returned home to take ven- 
geance of his enemies at Rome. Cinna, by his ill-timed severity, pro- 
duced a tumult and mutiny through his army ; and while endeavouring 
to appease it he was run through the body. 

Scipio, the consul who commanded against Sylla, was soon after 
allured by proposals for coming to a treaty ; but a suspension of arms 
being agreed upon, Sylla's soldiers went into the opposite camp, dis- 
playing those riches which they had acquired in their expeditions, and 
offering to participate with their fellow-citizens, in case they changed 
their party ; consequently the whole army declared for Sylla. Thus 
both factions, exasperated to madness, and expecting no mercy on 
either part, gave vent to their fury in several engagements. The forces 
on the side of young Marius, who now succeeded his father in command, 
were more numerous, but those of Sylla better disciplined. Carbo, 
who commanded for Marius, soon after engaged Metellus ; but was 
defeated with the loss of ten thousand slain, and six thousand taken 
prisoners. 

Sylla now entered Rome at the head of his army, and became undis- 
puted master of the country. Happy had he supported in peace the 
glory which he had acquired in war, or had he ceased to live when he 
ceased to conquer. He ordered eight thousand men, who had escaped 
the general carnage, to be slain. The next day he proscribed forty 
senators, and sixteen hundred knights ; and two days after, forty sena- 
tors more, with an infinite number of the richest citizens. He next 
took upon himself the dictatorship ; and after having held it nearly three 
years he resigned it. After this he retired into the country, where he 
was seized with a horrible distemper, and died a loathsome and mor- 
tifying object. 

How did he regain his liberty ? — Mention the other particulars concerning him. 
— What factions now appeared ? — How did Sylla behave after his triumph ? 



catiline's conspiracy. 213 

CHAPTER 14. 
CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY — CAESAR CROSSES THE RUBICON. 

(B. C. 73.) Upon the death of Sylla, the jealousies of Pompey and 
Crassus began to excite fresh dissensions. They were both conquer- 
ors, but Pompey was the most beloved general of the age. Each 
strove to be foremost in obtaining the favour of the people. Pompey 
gained the superiority, and Manilius, one of the tribunes of the people, 
procured a law that all the armies of the empire, with the government 
of all Asia, together with the war which was to be renewed against 
Mithridates, should be committed to Pompey. On his appointment, 
Pompey departed for Asia against Mithridates, and soon effected an 
easy conquest, adding a large extent of dominion to the Roman empire, 
and returned to Rome at the head of his conquering army. 

But the victories of Pompey rather served to heighten the glory than 
to increase the power of Rome; for, even while he was pursuing his 
conquests abroad, the city was at the verge of ruin from a conspiracy 
at home, projected and carried on by one Sergius Catiline, a patrician 
by birth, who resolved to build his own power on the downfall of his 
country. He was possessed of courage equal to the most deperate at- 
tempts, and of eloquence to give a colour to his ambition ; ruined in his 
fortunes, profligate in his manners, and vigilant in pursuing his aims, 
he was insatiable after wealth, only with a view of lavishing it on his 
guilty pleasures. Having assembled about thirty of his debauched 
associates, and informed them of his settled plan of operations, it was 
resolved that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy ; 
that Rome should be fired in several places at once ; and that Catiline 
should, in the general confusion, possess himself of the city, and mas- 
sacre all the senators. But Cicero, by the intrigues of a woman named 
Fulvia, gained over Curius her lover, and one of the conspirators, to 
send him a punctual account of all their deliberations, and he made 
them known to the Senate. Upon considerable rewards for further dis- 
coveries being offered, Catiline left Rome by night, and Lentulus, Ce- 
thegus, Cassius, and several other conspirators, were soon after stran- 
gled in prison. 

While his associates were put to death in the city, Catiline had 
raised an army of twelve thousand men; and being informed of the 
fate of his confederates, he endeavoured to escape over the Apennines 
into Gaul. But he was hemmed in on every side by an army superior 
to his own ; and in a fierce and bloody battle, his whole army was 
destroyed. Pompey was now returned in triumph from conquering the 
East. Crassus was the richest man in Rome; and, next to Pompey, 
he possessed the greatest authority. They had long been disunited by 
an opposition of interests and of characters. Julius Caesar had returned 
with great riches and glory from being praetor in Spain ; and he resolved 



What victory did Pompey achieve ? — What conspiracy threatened the ruin of 
Rome ? - What befel Catiline ? 



214 HISTORY OF ROME. 

to convert their mutual jealousies to his own advantage. This cele- 
brated man espoused the side of the people, and shortly after the death 
of Sylla, he procured those whom Sylla had banished to be recalled. 
He quickly obtained the confidence and protection of Pompey. 

Crassus was disposed to become still more nearly his friend. At 
length, finding neither of them averse from a union of interests, Csesar 
had art enough to persuade them to forget former animosities. A com- 
bination was thus formed, by which they agreed that nothing should 
be done in the commonwealth but what received their mutual approba- 
tion. This was called the First Triumvirate. (B. C. 60.) Csesar 
offered himself for the consulship ; and though the Senate were obliged 
to concur in choosing him, yet they gave him for a colleague Bibulus, 
who, after a slight attempt in favour of the Senate, remained inactive. 
Caesar shared the foreign provinces of the empire with his confederates. 
Pompey chose Spain, Crassus Syria, and to Csesar were left the pro- 
vinces of Gaul for five years. 

Caesar fought many battles and subdued numerous nations in his 
expedition into Gaul and Britain, which continued eight years. He 
overcame the Helvetians, the Germans, the Belgse, the Nervii, and the 
Celtic Gauls ; after them, the Suevi, the Menapii, and all the nations 
from the Mediterranean to the British Sea. He next crossed over into 
Britain, (B. C. 54,) upon pretence that the natives had furnished his ene- 
mies with continual supplies. The Britons, being terrified at Caesar's 
power, after they had been routed several times, sent to desire a peace, 
which Caesar granted, and then returned to the continent. Pompey, 
w T ho remained in Rome, steadily co-operated with Csesar's ambition, 
and advanced his interests, while he vainly supposed he w r as forward- 
ing his own, and by his means Caesar was continued five years longer 
in Gaul. Nor was Pompey roused from his lethargy, till the fame of 
that great commander's valour, riches and humanity, made him suspect 
they would soon eclipse his own. The death of Julia, Pompey's wife, 
and the destruction of Crassus, tended greatly to hasten the separation. 

Caesar, who now became sensible of the jealousy of Pompey, soli- 
cited for the consulship, together with a prolongation of his govern- 
ment in Gaul. In this affair Pompey seemed to be quite inactive ; but 
at the same time he privately employed two of his- creatures, who 
alleged in the Senate, that the laws did not permit a person that was 
absent to offer himself as a candidate for that high office. The Senate, 
which was devoted to Pompey, ordered home two legions belonging 
to him, which were in Caesar's army. Caesar having previously 
attached the officers to himself by benefits, and the soldiers by boun- 
ties, sent them. The next step of the Senate was to recal Caesar from 
his government, as his time was very near expiring. 

Curio, his friend in the Senate, proposed that Caesar should not leave 
his army till Pompey had set him the example. Csesar, who was 
instructed in all that passed, though he was still in Gaul, was willing 
to lay down his employment when Pompey should do the same. But 

Who obtained the confidence of Pompey? — Who composed the Triumviiate? — 
Repeat the conquests of Julius Caesar.- -What did Caesar solicit? — Was it granted ? 



JULIUS CAESAR. 215 

the Senate rejected his propositions, blindly confident of their power, 
and relying on the assurances of Pompey. Caesar, (B. C. 49,) finding 
all attempts at an accommodation fruitless, and conscious, if not of the 
goodness of his cause, at least of the goodness of his troops, marched 
his army to the Rubicon, a little river which separates Italy from Cisal- 
pine Gaul, and which terminated the limits of his command. The 
Romans had ever been taught to consider this river as the sacred bound- 
ary of their domestic empire. Caesar, therefore, stopped short on the 
bank, pondering a while, as if impressed with terror at the greatness 
of his enterprise. " If I pass this river," he exclaimed, " what mise- 
ries shall I bring upon my country ! and if I now stop short, I am 
undone. Let us go where the gods and the injustice of our enemies 
call us." Saying this, he plunged into the river, and his soldiers 
quickly followed him. Having crossed the Rubicon, they soon arrived 
at Ariminum, and made themselves masters of the place. (See Fron- 
tispiece.) 

This unexpected enterprise excited the utmost terrors in Rome, every 
one imagining that Caesar was leading his army to lay the city in ruins. 
In this universal confusion, Pompey felt all that repentance and self- 
condemnation which must necessarily arise from the remembrance of 
having advanced his rival to his present pitch of power. Many of his 
former friends were ready to tax him with his supineness, and sarcas- 
tically to reproach his ill-grounded presumption. Being at length wea- 
ried with these reproaches, he endeavoured to encourage and confirm 
his followers. He told them that his two lieutenants were at the head 
of a very considerable army in Spain, composed of veteran troops that 
had made a conquest of the East; besides these there were numerous 
other resources. This, in some measure, revived the hopes of the con- 
federacy. 

Being in no capacity to resist Caesar at Rome, Pompey led his forces 
to Capua ; and Caesar, not being able to bring him to an accommoda- 
tion, pursued him, and marched on to take possession of the cities that 
lay between him and his rival, not regarding Rome, which he knew 
would fall to the conqueror. Corfinium was the first city that endea- 
voured to stop his march. Caesar quickly invested it; and Domitius, 
who defended it, was obliged to endeavour to escape privately. His 
intentions being divulged, the garrison resolved to consult their own 
safety, by delivering him up to the besiegers. Caesar readily accepted 
their offers ; and when Lentulus the consul, one of the besieged, im- 
plored forgiveness for himself and his confederates, reminding him of 
their ancient friendship, Caesar generously replied, that he came into 
Italy, not to injure the liberties of Rome and its- citizens, but to restore 
them. This humane reply being known in the city, the senators and 
the knights, with their children, and some officers of the garrison, came 
out to claim the conqueror's protection ; and he gave them their liberty. 



What step did Cassar take? — Did Pompey wait his approach with courage?-' 
What success had Cassar at Corfinium ? 



216 HISTORY OF ROME. 

CHAPTER 15. 
BATTLE OF PHARS ALIA — DEATH OF POMPEY. 

Pompey, being unable to continue in Rome, when he knew what had 
passed on this occasion, retreated to Brundusium, where he resolved to 
stand a siege ; and after having employed Caesar for some time before 
the place, he privately carried his forces over to Dyrrhachium, where 
the consul had levied a body of troops for his assistance. Caesar, being 
unable to follow him for want of shipping, returned to Rome, and took 
possession of the public treasury, from which he took three thousand 
pounds weight of gold, and an immense quantity of silver. He then 
marched his army to meet Pompey's two lieutenants in Spain, at the 
head of a veteran army, which had ever been victorious. Caesar soon 
obliged them to yield at discretion; and in the space of about forty 
days, he became master of all Spain. He returned victorious to Rome ; 
and was received by the citizens with fresh demonstrations of joy. He 
was created dictator and consul ; but the former office he laid down 
when he had held it eleven days. 

Pompey in the mean time was actively making preparations in Epirus 
and Greece ; and all the East had declared in his favour, and had sent 
him large supplies. He was master of nine effective Italian legions, 
and had a fleet of five hundred ships, under the conduct of Bibulus, an 
experienced commander. He had attacked and defeated Antony and 
Dolabella, who commanded for Caesar, the latter of whom was taken 
prisoner. He was joined by crowds of the most distinguished citizens 
and nobles of Rome ; and he had, at one time, above two hundred 
senators in his camp, among whom were Cicero and Cato. Notwith- 
standing these preparations, Caesar shipped part of his forces at Brun- 
dusium. The first place where the two armies came in sight of each 
other, was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus. But neither of 
the generals was willing to hazard a battle upon this occasion. 

Pompey, being compelled to retreat, led his forces to Asparagium, 
and pitched his camp upon a tongue of land which jutted into the sea, 
where was a small shelter for his ships. In this advantageous situa- 
tion he began to entrench his camp, which Caesar perceiving, began 
also to entrench behind him, hoping, by a blockade, to force his oppo- 
nent to a battle, which he ardently desired, and which the other with 
equal industry declined. At length the two armies engaged. The 
conflict was for some time carried on with great ardour, and with equal 
fortune ; but Caesar's army, being entangled in some old entrenchments, 
began to fall into disorder, and great numbers of them perished. Pom- 
pey pursued his successes to the very camp of Caesar, but fearing an 
ambuscade, he withdrew his troops into his own camp. 

After this defeat, which was by no means decisive, Caesar united all 
his forces into one body, and soon possessed himself of nearly all 

What other victories did Caesar obtain ? — Where did the two armies come in sight 
of each other ? — What was the event of the battle ? 



BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. 217 

Thessaly. In the mean time, Pompey's officers continually soliciting 
their commander to come to a battle, he marched into Thessaly, and 
drew down upon the plains of Pharsalia, where he was joined by 
Scipio, his lieutenant, and the troops under his command. Thither 
Caesar advanced to meet the enemy. The approach of these two 
armies, composed of the best and bravest troops in the world, together 
with the greatness of the prize for which they contended, filled every 
mind with anxiety. Pompey's army, being more numerous than tha 
of his antagonist, turned all their thoughts to the enjoyments of the 
victory ; Caesar's, with better aim, considered only the means of obtain- 
ing it. 

After a short delay, Caesar drew up his troops in order, and advanced 
to the place of battle. His forces did not amount to above half those 
of Pompey. The army of the one was about forty-five thousand foot, 
and seven thousand horse ; that of the other not exceeding twenty-two 
thousand foot, and about a thousand horse. (B. C. 43.) 

When the signal for battle was given, a terrible pause ensued, in 
which both armies continued to gaze upon each other with mutual 
terror and dreadful serenity ; at length the engagement began with great 
fury. Pompey's cavalry were totally routed in a short time, and fled 
to the neighbouring mountains ; but his infantry withstood the charge 
of the enemy for some time with great bravery. At length they gave 
way, and Caesar marched with his victorious troops to the enemy's 
camp, where he met with a formidable resistance from the cohorts 
which were left to defend the camp ; but nothing could resist the ardour 
of -Caesar's victorious army; the enemy were driven from the trenches, 
and all fled to the mountains. 

Caesar, seeing the field and camp strewed with his fallen countrymen, 
was strongly affected at the melancholy prospect, and cried out, " they 
would have it so." Upon entering the camp every object presented 
fresh instances of the blind presumption and madness of his adver- 
saries. On all sides were to be seen tents adorned with ivy and myrtle, 
couches covered with purple, and sideboards loaded with plate. Every 
thing gave proofs of the highest luxury, and seemed rather the prepara- 
tives for a banquet, or the rejoicings for a victory, than the dispositions 
for a battle. A camp so richly furnished might have been able to en- 
gage the attention of any troops but Caesar's ; but he permitted them 
not to pursue any other object than their enemies. A considerable body 
of Pompey's army having retired to the adjacent mountains, Caesar pre- 
vailed on his soldiers to join him in pursuing these ; and the greater 
part surrendered themselves to him. 

Thus Caesar gained the most complete victory that had ever been 
obtained ; and by his great clemency after the battle seems to have 
deserved it. His loss amounted only to two hundred men; and that 
of Pompey to fifteen thousand. Twenty-four thousand men surrendered 



What was the conduct of the two generals after the battle 1 — In what place 
were the forces drawn together ? — What number of forces had each general ? — 
For whom did victory decide ? — What were Caesar's feelings on viewing the field 
of battle ? 

19 



218 HISTORY OF ROME. 

themselves prisoners of war ; and the greater part of these entered into 
Caesar's army. To the senators and Roman knights who fell into his 
hands he generously gave liberty to retire wherever they thought pro- 
per ; and all the letters which Pompey had received from those who 
wished to be thought neutral, Caesar burned unread, as Pompey had 
done upon a former occasion. Thus, having performed all the duties 
of a general and a statesman, he set out on his march, and the same day 
arrived at Larissa. 

As for Pompey, when he saw his cavalry, on which he placed his 
sole dependence, flee in disorder, he returned to the camp, and in his 
tent waited the issue of the battle; and when he was told that the camp 
was attacked, he fled on horseback to Larissa ; thence, perceiving that 
he was not pursued, he slackened his pace, giving way to all the ago- 
nizing reflections which his situation must naturally suggest. Finding 
his affairs desperate, he embarked in a vessel and steered for Lesbos, 
to take with him his wife Cornelia, whom he had left there, at a dis- 
tance from the dangers and distress of war. She, who had long flat- 
tered herself with the hopes of victory, now felt the agonizing reverse 
of fortune. Pompey, taking her under his protection* determined upon 
applying to Ptolemy, king of Egypt, to whose father he had been a 
considerable benefactor. Ptolemy was yet a minor, and had not the 
government in his own hands, but was under the direction of an admi- 
nistration. His council insidiously contrived that Pompey should be 
invited on shore, and murdered before he could come into the king's 
presence. Achillas, commander of the forces, and Septimus, a Roman, 
who had formerly been a centurion in Pompey's army, undertook to 
carry the treacherous design into execution. Attended by three or four 
more, they put off in a little bark, and rowed to Pompey's ship that lay 
a mile from the shore. 

Having returned to shore with Pompey, Septimus stabbed him in the 
back, and Achillas instantly seconded the blow. Pompey, perceiving 
his death inevitable, calmly disposed himself to meet it with decency ; 
and, covering his face with his robe, without a word resigned himself 
to his fate. At this horrid sight, Cornelia and her attendants, who 
remained in the vessel, and were still in sight, shrieked so as to be 
heard to the shore. But the danger they were in allowing no time to 
look on, they immediately set sail, and the wind proving favourable, 
fortunately escaped the pursuit, of the Egyptian galleys. 

In the mean time Pompey's murderers having cut off his head, em 
balmed it for a present to Caesar; while the body was thrown naked 
on the strand, and exposed to the view of those whose curiosity was to 
be satisfied. However, Philip, his faithful freedman, and an old Ro- 
man soldier, who had served under Pompey in his youth, burned the 
corpse, and carefully collecting the ashes, carried them to Cornelia, 
who deposited them at his villa, near Alba, in Italy. The Egyptians 
afterwards erected a monument to him, on the spot on which his fune- 
ral pile had been raised, with an inscription to this purpose, " How 

How did he behave to the vanquished ? — Relate the unhappy fate of Pompey. — 
Did his wife see him murdered? — Was Pompey interred with funeral honours ? 



CESAR IN EGYPT. 219 

poor a tomb covers the man who once had temples erected to his ho- 
nour !" From Pompey's death we date the extinction of the republic. 
From this period the Senate was dispossessed of its power, and Rome 
henceforward was never without a master. 



CHAPTER 16. 
CAESAR IN EGYPT — CATO IN UTICA. 

Cesar (B. C. 47,) has been much celebrated for his good fortune, but 
his abilities seem equal to the highest success. He possessed shining 
qualities with the intermixture only of ambition. He resolved to pur- 
sue Pompey to whatever country he had retired. Accordingly he ar- 
rived at Alexandria with, about four thousand men. The first accounts 
he received were of Pompey's miserable end ; and soon after one of the 
murderers came with his head and his ring, as a most grateful present 
to the conqueror. But Caesar had too much humanity to be pleased 
with so horrid a spectacle, and turning from it in disgust, he gave vent 
to his pity in a flood of tears. He ordered the head to be burned with 
the most costly perfumes, and placed the ashes in a temple dedicated 
to the goddess Nemesis, the avenger of cruel and inhuman deeds. 

There were at that time two pretenders to the crown of Egypt; Pto- 
lemy, the acknowledged king, and the celebrated Cleopatra, his sister, 
to whom, by the custom of the country, he was married, and who, by 
his father's will, shared jointly in the succession. Still she aimed at 
governing alone ; but being opposed in her views by the Roman Senate, 
she was banished into Syria, with Arsinoe, her younger sister. Caesar 
gave her new hopes of aspiring to the kingdom, and sent for her and 
her younger brother to plead their cause before him. Pothinus, the 
young king's guardian, disdaining to accept this proposal, backed his 
refusal by sending an army of twenty thousand men, under the com- 
mand of Achillas, to besiege Caesar in Alexandria. 

Caesar bravely repulsed the enemy ; and soon after possessed him- 
self of the isle of Pharos, and there determined to withstand the united 
force of the Egyptians. 

In the mean time, Cleopatra, having heard of the present turn in her 
favour, resolved to depend on Caesar's favour for gaining the govern- 
ment, rather than on her own forces. But no arts, as she justly con- 
ceived, were so likely to influence Caesar as the charms of her person, 
which were irresistible. She was then in the bloom of youth and 
beauty, while every feature borrowed grace from the lively turn of her 
temper. To the most enchanting address she joined the most harmo- 
nious voice. She possessed a great share of the learning of the times, 
and could give audience to the ambassadors of seven different nations 
without an interpreter. She was privately conveyed to Caesar, who 

What were Caesar's feelings when he was informed of his rival's death? — Was 
he pleased when the murderer presented Pompey's head ? — Who were the rivals 
to the crown of Egypt ? — Who besieged Csesar in Alexandria ? — Who was pri- 
vately conveyed to Caesar? 



220 HISTORY OF ROME. 

was captivated by her beauty, and he was soon brought to second hei 
claims. 

While Cleopatra was thus employed in forwarding her own views, 
her sister Arsinoe was also strenuously engaged in the camp in pursu- 
ing a separate interest. She had found means, by the assistance of 
Ganymede, her confidant, to make a large division in the Egyptian 
army in her favour ; and soon after she caused Achillas to be murdered, 
and Ganymede to take the command in his stead, and to carry on the 
siege with greater vigour than before. In a short time he made him- 
self master of a bridge which joined the isle of Pharos to the conti- 
nent, from which post Caesar was resolved to dislodge him. In the 
heat of the action, some mariners, partly through curiosity, and partly 
through ambition, joined the combatants ; but, being seized with a 
panic, instantly fled, and spread a general terror through the army. All 
CaBsar's efforts to rally his forces were ineffectual ; and great numbers 
were drowned or put to the sword in attempting to escape. 

The Alexandrians, finding themselves unable to take the palace, 
which Caesar had defended, endeavoured to get their king out of 
Caesar's power, as he had previously seized upon his person. For this 
purpose they professed the utmost desire for peace, and only wanting 
the presence of their lawful prince to give a sanction to the treaty. 
Caesar, though he was sensible of their dissimulation and perfidy, gave 
them their king. Ptolemy, however, instead of promoting the peace, 
made every effort to give vigour to his hostilities. Caesar was at last 
relieved from this mortifying situation by Mithridates Pergamenus, one 
of his most faithful partisans, who came with an army to his assistance. 
They attacked the camp of the Egyptians, and slew many of the 
enemy. Ptolemy attempting to make his escape on board a vessel, 
was drowned, by the ship's sinking. Caesar being thus master of all 
Egypt, appointed Cleopatra, w T ith her younger brother, joint governors, 
according to the intent of their father's will, and banished Arsinoe and 
Ganymede. 

Having thus subdued all Egypt, instead of quitting that country to 
go and quell the remains of Pompey's party, he abandoned himself to 
his pleasures, passing whole nights in feasting, and in all the excesses 
of high-wrought luxury, with the young queen. Being at length roused 
from his lethargy by the reprehensions of those brave veterans who had 
followed his fortune, he left Cleopatra, by whom he had a son, who 
was named Csesario, to oppose Pharnaces, the king of Bosphorus, who 
had made some inroads upon the dominions of Rome in the East. This 
prince, who had cruelly deposed his father, the great Mithridates, being 
desirous of reconquering these dominions, seized upon Armenia and 
Colchis. Caesar conquered him with so much ease, that, in writing to 
a friend at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his victory in these 
words, " Veni, vidi, vici .•" " I came, I saw, I conquered." 

Caesar having settled affairs in this part of the empire, embarked for 



What is said of Arsinoe? — What defeat did Caesar sustain? — Did Caesar gain pos- 
session of Egypt? — Whom did he appoint to reign? — How did Caesar pass his lime 
after the conquest? — Whom did he afterwards conquer? 



CATO IN UTICA. 221 

jtaly, where he arrived sooner than his enemies could expect, but not 
oefbre his presence there was absolutely required. During his absence 
ne had been created consul for five years, dictator for one, and tribune 
of the people for life. But Antony, who in the mean time governed for 
him in Rome, had filled the city with riot and debauchery, and many 
commotions ensued, which nothing but the arrival of Caesar could ap- 
pease. Having restored his authority at home, he prepared to march 
into Africa, where Pompey's party had rallied under Scipio and Cato, 
assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. Scipio soon after received a 
complete and final overthrow, with little or no loss to the victor. Juba 
and Petreius, his general, killed each other in despair, and Scipio was 
slain in attempting to effect his escape into Spain. 

Cato was now in the city of Utica, which he had been left to defend. 
The enthusiasm for liberty subsiding among his followers, he was re- 
solved no longer to force men to be free who seemed naturally prone to 
slavery, and with fierce resolution killed himself. The war in Africa 
being ended, Coesar returned in such triumph to Rome, as if he had 
abridged all his former triumphs only to increase the splendour of this. 
The citizens were astonished at the magnificence of the procession, and 
at the number of the countries he had subdued. It lasted four days ; 
the first was for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for his victories 
in Asia, and the fourth for that over Juba in Africa. 

The people, intoxicated with the allurements of pleasure, thought 
their freedom too small a return for such benefits. They seemed eager 
only to find out new modes of homage, and unusual epithets of adula- 
tion. He was created Magister Morum, or Master of the Morals of the 
People ; and he received the title of Emperor and Father of his country. 
His person was declared sacred ; and upon him alone were devolved 
for life all the great dignities of the state. It must be owned that so 
much power could never have been intrusted to better keeping. He 
immediately began his empire by repressing vice and encouraging virtue. 
He committed the power of judicature to the senators and the knights 
alone, and by many sumptuary laws restrained the scandalous luxuries 
of the rich. He took the most prudent methods of repeopling the city, 
which had been exhausted in the late commotions. 



CHAPTER 17. 

DEATH OF CiESAR— THE TRIUMVIRATE. 

Cesar, having thus restored prosperity once more to Rome, again 
found himself under a necessity of going into Spain, to oppose an army 
which had been raised there under the two sons of Pompey, and also 
Labienus, his former general. (B. C.40.) He proceeded in this expe- 
dition with his usual celerity, and arrived in Spain before the enemy 

In what state did Caesar find Rome at his return? — What was the end of Cato ? 
- In what mannner did Caesar triumph at Rome ? — What power did the people 
■ntrust him with? — Was he worthy of it? — With whom did Caesar contend ic 
Spain ? 

19* 



222 HISTORY OF ROME. 

thought him yet departed from Rome. Cneius Pompey, and Sextus, 
Pompey's sons, profiting by their unhappy father's example, resolved 
to protract the war as much as possible. However, Caesar, after taking 
many cities, and pursuing the enemy with unwearied diligence, com- 
pelled them to come to a battle upon the plain of Munda. In tnis en- 
gagement Cneius Pompey was totally routed ; thirty thousand of his 
men were killed, and among them Labienus, whom Caesar ordered to 
be buried with the funeral honours of a general officer. Pompey escaped 
with a few horsemen to the seaside ; but finding his passage intercepted 
by Caesar's lieutenant, he sought for a retreat in an obscure cavern. He 
was quickly discovered by Caesar's troops, who presently cut off his 
Tiead, and brought it to the conqueror. Sextus, however, concealed him- 
self so well that he escaped all pursuit, and afterward, from his pira- 
cies, he became formidable to the people of Rome. 

By this last blow, Caesar subdued all his avowed enemies, and the 
rest of his life was employed for the advantage of the state. He com- 
menced the erection of several magnificent buildings ; he rebuilt Car- 
thage and Corinth; he undertook to level several mountains in Italy; 
to drain the Pontine marshes near Rome ; and he designed to cut 
through the isthmus of Peloponnesus. But the greatest of all his 
mighty projects was his intended expedition against the Parthians; by 
which he designed to revenge the death of Crassus, whom they had 
put to a cruel death, by pouring molten gold down his throat, as a pun- 
ishment for his former avarice. But the jealousy of a few individuals 
put an end to Caesar's aims of ambition. 

Having been made perpetual dictator, and receiving from the Senate 
accumulated honours, it began to be rumoured that he intended to make 
himself king. In fact he was already possessed of the power ; but 
the people, who had an aversion to the name, could not bear the title. 
A deep conspiracy was therefore laid against him, composed of no less 
than sixty senators ; and at the head of it were Brutus, whose life 
Caesar had spared after the battle of Pharsalia, and Cassius, who was 
pardoned soon after, both praetors for the present year. Brutus prided 
himself on having descended from that Brutus who first gave liberty to 
Rome. The passion for freedom seemed to have been transmitted to 
him with the blood of his ancestors. But though he detested tyranny, 
he could not forbear loving the tyrant from whom he had received the 
most signal benefits. When Caesar was advised to beware of Brutus, 
in whom he had for some time reposed the greatest confidence, he 
opened his breast, all scarred with wounds, saying, " Can you think 
Brutus cares for such poor pillage as this?" And, to convince the 
world how little he apprehended from his enemies, he disbanded his 
Spanish guards, and thus facilitated the enterprise against his life. 

The conspirators, to give a colour of justice to their proceedings, put 
off the execution of their design till the ides of March, the day on 
which Caesar was to be offered the crown. The augurs are said to have 
foretold that this day would be fatal to him. This, with several omens 

What was the result? — What public works did Caesar engage himself in? — Who 
formed a conspiracy against Ceesar? — What day was fixci for executing the plot? 



( 224 ) 




DEATH OF CESAR. 225 

which occurred at that time, together with a dream of his wife's, in 
some measure began to change his intention of going to the Senate ; 
but one of the conspirators, by rallying his superstition, and telling 
him of the preparations that were made for his appearance, prevailed 
upon him to keep his resolution. As he went along to the Senate, a 
slave attempted to inform him of the conspiracy, but was prevented 
from coming near him by the crowd. Artemidorus, a Greek philoso- 
pher, who had discovered the whole plot, delivered him a memorial 
containing the heads of his information ; but Csesar gave it, with other 
papers, to one of his secretaries without reading. 

As soon as Csesar had taken his place in the Senate, he was attacked 
by the conspirators ; and Casca, one of their number, stabbed him in 
the shoulder. Caesar sprang round, and with the stylus of his tablet 
wounded him in the arm. He defended himself with great vigour, 
rushing among them, and throwing down such as opposed him, till he 
saw Brutus among the conspirators, who struck his dagger into his 
thigh. From that moment he thought no more of defending himself, 
but looking on Brutus he exclaimed, " And you, too, my son !" Then 
covering his head, and spreading his robe before him, he sunk down at 
the base of Pompey's statue, after having received three-and-twenty 
wounds, in his fifty-sixth year, and about fourteen years after he began 
the conquest of the world. (B. C. 43). 

As soon as the conspirators had despatched Caesar, they retired to the 
Capitol, and guarded its access by a body of gladiators which Brutus 
had in pay. The friends of the late dictator soon perceived that this 
was the time for coming into greater power than before, and for satis- 
fying their ambition under the veil of promoting justice. Of this 
number was Antony, the consul for that year, and Lepidus, a man fond 
of commotions, and who, like Antony, w T as ambitious to gain that power 
which Csesar had died for usurping. 

They first possessed themselves of Caesar's papers and money; and 
then convened the Senate to determine whether Caesar had been a legal 
magistrate or a tyrannical usurper ; and whether those who killed him 
merited rewards or punishments. Many of the senators had received 
all their promotions from Caesar, and acquired large fortunes in conse- 
quence of his appointments : to vote him a usurper, therefore, would 
be to endanger their property, and yet to vote him innocent might 
endanger the state. In this dilemma they seemed willing to reconcile 
extremes, by approving all the acts of Caesar, yet, at the same time, 
granting a general pardon to the conspirators. 

This decree was far from giving Antony satisfaction, as it granted 
security to a number of men who were the avowed enemies of tyranny, 
and who would be foremost in opposing his schemes for restoring abso- 
lute power. As the Senate had ratified all Caesar's acts without dis- 
tinction, Antony, being possessed of Caesar's books of accounts, so far 
gained upon his secretary as to make him insert whatever he thought 



Repeat the account of Caesar's murder. — Who were among Caesar's friends ? — 
What was the decree of the senate? — Did the decree satisfy Antony ? — How did 
he proceed ? 



226 HISTORY OV ROME. 

oroper. By these means, great sums of money were there distributed 
among the people, and every man who had any seditious designs against 
the government was there sure to find a gratuity. Antony next de- 
manded of the Senate that Caesar's funeral obsequies should be per- 
formed. This being granted, the body was brought forth with great 
solemnity, and Antony first read Caesar's will, in which he had made 
Octavius, his sister's grandson, his heir; and to the Roman people 
were left the gardens which he possessed on the other side of the Tiber ; 
and to every citizen, three hundred sesterces. Unfolding Caesar's 
bloody robe, pierced by the daggers of the conspirators, he observed to 
them the number of stabs in it. This so inflamed the minds of the 
people, that they unanimously cried out for revenge; and the conspira- 
tors, perceiving the general rage of the populace, thought it safer to 
retire from the city. 

Antony, who had excited this flame, resolved to make the most of 
the occasion ; but he found Octavius, afterwards Augustus, a formida- 
ble obstacle to his ambition. A third competitor for power appeared 
in Lepidus, a man of some authority and great riches. At first the 
ambition of these three seemed to threaten fatal consequences to each 
other; but uniting in the common cause, they resolved to revenge the 
death of Caesar; and, dividing their power, formed what is called the 
second triumvirate. The meeting of these three usurpers of their coun- 
try's freedom was upon a little island of the river Parnarus.* Their 
conference lasted for three days, and in this period they fixed a division 
of government, and determined upon the fate of thousands. 

The result of this was, that the supreme authority should be lodged 
in their hands, under the title of the triumvirate, for the space of five 
years : that Antony should have Gaul ; Lepidus, Spain ; and Augustus, 
Africa and the Mediterranean Islands. Italy and the eastern provinces 
were to remain in common, till the general enemy should be subdued. 
It was also agreed that all their enemies should be destroyed, of whom 
each presented a list ; in which were comprised not only the enemies, 
but also the friends of the triumvirate, since the partisans of the one 
were often found among the opposers of the other. Thus Lepidus gave 
up his brother Paulus; Antony, Lucius; and Augustus, the celebrated 
Cicero, who was assassinated soon after by Antony's command. Bru- 
tus and Cassius, the principal of the conspirators against Caesar, being 
compelled to quit Rome, went into Greece, wiiere they persuaded the 
Roman students at Athens to declare in the cause of freedom ; then 
parting, the former raised a powerful army in Macedonia, while the 
latter went into Syria, where he soon became master of twelve legions. 
In short, having quitted Italy like distressed exiles, without having one 
soldier or one town that owned their command, they soon found them- 
selves at the head of a flourishing army, and in a condition to support 
a contest, on the event of which the empire of the world depended. 

* Now the Rheno, which runs through Bologna, and falls into the Po. 



What was Caesar's will ? — Who formed the second triumvirate ? — What was the 
result of their conference ? — What became of Brutus and Cassius ? 



BATTLE OF PHILIPPI. 227 

Their first expedition was to reduce the Rhodians and Lyciacs, who 
nad refused their usual contributions. By this means extraordinary 
contributions were raised ; the Rhodians having scarcely any thing left 
them but their lives. The Lycians suffered still more severely, for 
having shut themselves up in their capital town, Xanthus, they de- 
fended the place against "Brutus with so much fury that neither his arts 
nor entreaties could prevail on them to surrender. At length, the town 
being set on fire by their attempting to burn the works of the Romans, 
the citizens, instead of attempting to extinguish the fire, with desperate 
obstinacy, resolved to perish in the flames, and the whole soon became 
a heap of undistinguishable ruins. 

CHAPTER 18. 
BATTLE OF PHILIPPI — DEATH OF BRUTUS. 

Brutus and Cassius met once more at Sardis, where they had a pri- 
vate conference together ; after which, it was alleged that Brutus saw a 
spectre in his tent. It was in the dead of the night that Brutus, read- 
ing by a lamp that was just expiring, thought he heard a noise as if 
some one was approaching. Looking up, a gigantic figure of frightful 
aspect stood before him, and continued to gaze upon him with silent 
severity. Brutus is reported to have asked, " Art thou a demon or a 
mortal ? And why comest thou to me ?" " Brutus," answered the 
phantom, " I am thy evil genius — thou shalt see me again at Philippi." 
"Well, then," replied Brutus, without being discomposed, " we shall 
meet again." Upon this the phantom was supposed to vanish. Struck 
with so strange an occurrence, Brutus mentioned it to Cassius, who 
rightly ascribed it to the effect of an imagination too much excited by 
vigilance and anxiety. 

In the mean time Augustus and Antony had marched with forty 
legions to oppose Brutus and Cassius, and had drawn up their forces 
near to Philippi, whither the enemy followed them. The republican 
army consisted of eighty thousand foot, and twenty thousand horse ; 
that of the triumviri, of a hundred thousand foot, and thirteen thousand 
horse. Mankind now began to regard the approaching armies with 
terror and suspense. The empire of the world depended upon the fate 
of a battle. Brutus was the only man who looked upon these great 
events with calmness and tranquillity. " If I am victorious," said he, 
" I shall restore liberty to my country ; if not, by dying I shall myself 
be delivered from slavery. My condition is fixed ; I run no hazard." 

Near the town of Philippi were two little hills, about a mile distant 
from each other; upon these hills Brutus and Cassius fixed their 
camps. In this commodious situation they could act as they thought 
proper, and give battle when it was thought to their advantage to 
engage. Behind was the sea, which furnished them with all kinds of 
provision ; and the island of Thasos, twelve miles distant, served them 



What conquests did they make ?— What is told of Brutus and his evil genius ? ■ 
What was the number of each army ? — Where did they meet? 



228 HISTORY OF ROME. 

for a general magazine. The triumviri, on the other hand, were 
encamped on the plain below, and were obliged to bring provisions from 
fifteen leagues distant ; so that it was their interest to forward a battle 
as soon as possible. They offered battle several times, drawing out 
their men from the camp, and provoking the enemy to engage. 

Cassius, sensible of his advantage, and knowing that to postpone the 
battle was the only chance the republicans had for victory, resolved to 
harass rather than engage the enemy. But Brutus, who began to sus- 
pect the fidelity of some of his officers, used all his influence to per- 
suade Cassius to change his resolution. " I am impatient," said he, 
" to put an end to the miseries of mankind ; and in this I hope to suc- 
ceed, whether I conquer or fall." 

At length, both armies, in attempting to possess themselves of a road 
which communicated with the island of Thasos, resolved to come to a 
general engagement. Brutus having expressed his resolution of kill- 
ing himself, in case of being unfortunate, Cassius exclaimed, " My 
friend, now may we venture to face the enemy ; for either we shall be 
the conquerors, or we shall have no cause to fear those that are so." 
Augustus being sick, the forces of the triumviri were commanded by 
Antony alone, who began the engagement by a vigorous attack upon 
the lines of Cassius, which he soon broke, and put his cavalry to 
flight. Cassius exerted himself to the utmost to make his infantry 
stand ; stopping those that fled, and himself seizing the colours to rally 
them. 

But the valour of an individual was insufficient to inspire a timorous 
army, and at length despairing of success, he retired to his tent and 
killed himself. In the mean time Brutus had broken through the army 
of Augustus, and had penetrated as far as the camp, and having 
slaughtered those who were left to defend it, his troops immediately 
began to plunder. He was soon informed of the defeat and death of 
Cassius, whom he greatly lamented. (B. C. 35.) 

Brutus now became sole general, and having assembled the dispersed 
troops of Cassius, he animated them with fresh hopes of victory. After 
a respite of twenty days, he was obliged, by the frequent solicitations 
of his army, to try the fate of battle. The republicans were routed, 
and Brutus, after fighting long with amazing valour, was obliged to 
flee. The whole body of the enemy were intent on the person of 
Brutus alone, and his capture seemed inevitable ; but he escaped from 
them by the fidelity of Lucillus his friend, who, throwing himself 
between his general and his pursuers, said that he was Brutus. When 
he was taken before Antony, he boldly confessed the fraud : the con- 
queror, struck with his fidelity, generously pardoned him and honoured 
him with his friendship. Brtitus finding his affairs desperate, escaped 
the hands of the enemy by a voluntary death, in the forty-third year 
of his age. A. U. 711. 

Who offered battle several times? — What was the opinion of Cassius? — What 
of Brutus ? — How did the battle commence ? — Did Brutus intend to destroy him- 
self if beaten ? — What was the fate of Cassius ? — Did Brutus gain any advantage ? 
— What was the event of the next engagement? — How did Brutus escape the 
hands of the enemy ? — What was his end ? 



ANTONY IN EGYPT. 229 

CHAPTER 19. 
ANTONY IN EGYPT. 

From the moment of Brutus's death, the triumviri began to act as 
sovereigns, and to divide the Roman dominions among themselves, as 
their own by right of conquest. Their earliest care was to punish those 
whom they had formerly marked for vengeance. But the people chiefly 
lamented to see the head of Brutus sent to Rome to be thrown at the 
foot of Caesar's statue. It is observed, that of all those who had a hand 
in murdering Caesar, not one died a natural death. 

The power of the triumviri being thus established upon the ruin of 
the commonwealth, they began to think of enjoying that homage to 
which they had aspired. Antony went into Greece to receive the flat- 
tery of that refined people. Thence he passed over into Asia, where 
all the monarchs of the East who acknowledged the Roman power, 
came to pay him their obedience. In this manner he proceeded from 
kingdom to kingdom, exacting contributions, distributing favours, and 
giving away crowns with capricious insolence. 

But among all the sovereigns of the east, Cleopatra, the celebrated 
queen of Egypt, was the most conspicuous. For having received 
orders from Antony to clear herself of an imputation of infidelity to his 
tuase, she resolved to attend his court in person, and Antony soon be- 
came captivated with her beauty. When Cleopatra returned to Egypt, 
Antony, quitting every other object, presently flew after her, and there 
he continued in all that ease and softness to which his vicious heart 
was prone. 

While Antony remained thus idle in Egypt, Augustus, who took 
upon him to lead back the veteran troops, and settle them in Italy, was 
assiduously employed in providing for their subsistence. He had pre- 
mised them lands at home, as a recompense for their past services, but 
they could not receive their new grants without turning out the former 
inhabitants. In consequence of this, multitudes of women with chil- 
dren in their arms daily filled the temples and the streets with their 
distresses. Numbers of husbandmen and shepherds came to deprecate 
the conqueror's intention, or to obtain a habitation in some other part 
of the world. 

Among this number was Virgil the poet, who, in an humble manner, 
begged permission to retain his patrimonial farm. Virgil obtained his 
request, but the rest of his countrymen of Mantua and Cremona were 
turned out without mercy. A dispute arising between Antony and 
Augustus about the distribution of lands, Antony left Egypt to oppose 
Augustus. However, a reconciliation was effected ; all offences and 
affronts were mutually forgiven, and to cement the union, a marriage 
was concluded between Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus 



What is observed of Caesar's murderers ? — Into what countries did Antony tra- 
vel? — Who received his particular attention ? — What did Augustus promise the 
veteran troops? — What was the consequence 1— What is told, of the poet Virgil ? — 
Did he gain his request? 

20 



230 HISTORY OF ROME. 

A new division of the Roman empire was made between them ; Au- 
gustus was to have the command of the West; Antony, of the East; 
while Lepidus was obliged to content himself with the provinces in 
Africa. 

Augustus having dispossessed Lepidus, the only obstacle that re- 
mained to his ambition was Antony, whom he resolved to remove. In 
fact, Antony's conduct did not a little contribute to promote the en- 
deavours of his ambitious partner. He seemed alive only to pleasure, 
and totally disregarding the business of the state, he spent his whole 
time in the company of Cleopatra, who studied every art to increase 
his passion and vary his entertainments. By resolving to repudiate his 
wife Octavia and to marry Cleopatra, he exasperated the people of 
Rome still more against him. 

This gave Augustus a sufficient pretext for declaring war, and he in- 
formed the Senate of his intentions. Preparations were made on both 
sides, but the delays of Antony at Samos, and afterwards at Athens, 
whither he had carried Cleopatra to receive new honours, were ex- 
tremely favourable to his opponent, who was at first scarcely in a dis- 
Eosition to oppose him had he gone into Italy ; but Augustus soon put 
imself in a condition for carrying on the war, and shortly after declared 
it against him in form. The one was followed by all the forces of the 
East, the other by those of the West. 

The great decisive engagement, which was a naval one, was fought 
near Actium, a city of Epirus, at the entrance of the gulf of Ambracia. 
Antony ranged his ships before the mouth of the gulf, and Augustus 
drew up his fleet in opposition. The two land armies remained on oppo- 
site sides of the gulf only as spectators of the engagement, and en- 
couraged the fleets by their shouts to engage. They fought with great 
vigour, without advantage on either side, till the conduct of Cleopatra 
determined the fortune of the day. Wearied with expectation, and 
struck with fear, she suddenly tacked about in the heat of the engage- 
ment, and fled towards the Peloponnesus with her sixty sail, and An- 
tony quickly followed, leaving his fleet at the mercy of the enemy — 
They submitted to the conqueror, and the army on land, being abandoned 
by their general, presently did the same. 

Augustus resolved to pursue Antony into Egypt, and while his gene- 
ral, Cornelius Gallus, took possession of Paretonium, himself advanced 
with another army before Pelusium, which, by its strong situation, 
might have retarded his progress for some time. But the governor of 
the city, either wanting courage to defend it, or previously instructed 
by Cleopatra to give it up, permitted him to take possession, so that 
Augustus had now no obstacle in his way to Alexandria, whither he 
marched with all expedition. Antony, upon his arrival, sallied out to 
oppose him, fighting with desperation, and putting the enemy's cavalry 
•to flight. This slight advantage once more revived his declining hopes ; 

What was the "onduct of Augustus and Antony? — Who prepared for war? — Did 
Antony march with haste? — Where was the decisive engagement fought ? — How 
was the scale of victory turned ? — What city did Augustus take ? — Whither did he 
pursue Antony ? 



DEATH OF CLEOPATRA. 231 

and he resolved to make a bold and decisive effort both by sea and land, 
previously offering to fight his adversary in single combat. To this 
proposal Augustus coolly replied, " Antony has ways enough to die 
beside single combat." 

The day after, Antony posted the few troops he had remaining upon 
a rising ground near the city, whence he sent orders for his galleys to 
engage the enemy. There he waited to behold the combat, and at first 
he had the satisfaction to see them advance in good order ; but his joy 
was soon turned into rage when he beheld his ships only saluting those 
of Augustus, and both fleets, uniting together, sailed back into the har- 
bour, and at the same time his cavalry deserted him. He tried, how- 
ever, to lead on his infantry ; but these were easily vanquished» and 
he himself compelled to return into the town. His fury was now un- 
governable, and he cried out that he was betrayed by Cleopatra, and 
delivered up to those who for her sake alone were his enemies. In 
these suspicions he was not deceived, for it was by secret orders from 
the queen that the fleet had passed over to the enemy. 

Cleopatra had for a long while dreaded the effects of Antony's jea- 
lousy, and she had some time before prepared a method of obviating 
any sudden sallies it might produce. Near the temple of Isis she had 
erected a building which was seemingly designed for a sepulchre. 
Into this building she retired from the fury of Antony, and gave orders 
to have it reported that she was dead. This report soon reached An- 
tony, who now lamented her death with the same violence that he had 
just before seemed to desire it. He called to him one of his freedmen, 
named Eros, whom he had engaged by oath to kill him whenever for- 
tune should drive him to his last resource, and commanded him to per- 
form his promise. Eros drew his sword as if going instantly to strike 
the blow, when, turning his face, he plunged it into his own bosom, 
and dropped at his master's feet. Antony for awhile hung over his 
faithful servant, admiring his fidelity; then snatching up the sword, he 
stabbed himself in the belly, and expired soon after in the fifty-third 
year of his age. 

In a short time Augustus made his entry into Alexandria, and granted 
his pardon to the citizens. Soon after he honoured Cleopatra with a 
visit, who made use of every art to propitiate the conqueror. She tried 
apologies, entreaties, and allurements, to obtain his favour, and soften 
his resentment. When Augustus departed he assured her that in every 
thing she should be indulged to the height of her expectations. But 
being secretly informed that Augustus intended to send her and her 
children to Rome to grace his triumphant entry, she contrived to have 
an asp conveyed to her in a basket of fruit. She then wrote to the con- 
queror to inform him of her fatal purpose, desiring to be buried in the 
same tomb with Antony. Upon receiving the letter, Augustus instantly 
despatched messengers in hopes to stop her intentions ; but they ar- 
rived too late. Upon entering the chamber, they beheld Cleopatra 
lying dead on her couch, arrayed in her royal robes. 

What was the result of another engagement ? — What was the miserable end of 
Antony ? — What is told of Cleopatra's death ? 



232 HISTORY OF ROME. 

CHAPTER 20. 

CONSOLIDATION OF THE IMPERIAL POWER BY AUGUSTUS. 

By the death of Antony, (B. C.28,) Augustus became master of thfl 
Roman empire. He returned to Rome in triumph, where by feasts and 
magnificent shows, he began to obliterate the impressions of his former 
sruelty, and thenceforward resolved to secure by his clemency a throne, 
the foundations of which were laid in blood. He was now at the head 
of the most extensive empire mankind had ever beheld. The city was 
inhabited by a concourse from all the countries of the world ; and being 
consequently divested of all patriotic principle, perhaps a monarchy 
was the best form of government that could be found to unite its 
members. The first care of Augustus was to assure himself of the 
friends of Antony, to which end he publicly reported that he had burned 
all Antony's letters and papers without reading them, convinced that 
while any thought themselves suspected, they would be fearful of even 
offering him their friendship. 

He had gained the kingdom by his army, but he resolved to govern 
it by the Senate. This body, though greatly fallen from its ancient 
splendour, he knew to be the best constituted and most capable of 
wisdom and justice. To the Senate therefore he gave the chief power 
in the administration of his government, while he kept the people and 
the army steadfast to himself by donations and acts of favour. By 
these means the odium of justice fell upon the Senate, and the popu- 
larity of pardon was solely his own. Thus restoring splendour to the 
Senate, and discountenancing corruption, he pretended to reserve to 
himself only an absolute power to compel all ranks of the state to do 
their duty ; and the misguided people began to look upon his modera- 
tion with astonishment. 

He considered a long time whether he should keep the empire, or 
restore the people to their ancient liberty. But he adopted the advice 
of Meceenas, which was to continue in power ; and he was afterwards 
swayed by him on every occasion. By the advice of that minister he 
became gentle, affable, and humane ; he encouraged men of learning, 
and gave them much of his time and friendship. These in their turn 
relieved his most anxious hours, and circulated his praises through the 
empire. 

Augustus resolved upon impressing the people with an idea of his 
magnanimity by making a show of resigning his authority. To this 
end he avowed his intentions to the Senate in a studied speech import- 
ing the difficulty of governing so extensive an empire ; but the majority 
received his proposal with pretended indignation. These unanimously 
Yesought him not to resign the administration ; and upon his continu- 
iig to decline their request, they in a manner compelled him to comply. 



What power did Augustus now assume ? — How did he commence his govern- 
ment? — How did he conduct himself towards his subjects ? — By what means did 
he secure the kingdom ? 



AUGUSTUS. 233 

However, he assumed the government for ten years only; but he 
laid his measures so well that his power was renewed every ten years 
to his death. This show of resignation only served to confirm him in 
ihe empire and in the hearts of the people. He was now first called 
Augustus, a name we have hitherto used as that by which he is best 
known in history. A laurel was ordered to be planted at his gates ; 
wherever he made his abode, that house was called the palace, he was 
confirmed in the title of father of his country, and his person declared 
sacred and inviolable. 

(B. C.23.) When he entered into his tenth consulship, the Senate, 
by oath, approved of all his acts ; set him wholly above the power of 
the laws ; and soon after offered to swear, not only to all the laws he 
had made, but also to such as he should make for the future. An ac- 
cumulation of titles and employments did not in the least diminish his 
assiduity in filling the duties of each. By his command several very 
wholesome edicts were passed, tending to suppress corruption in the 
Senate and licentiousness in the people. He ordained that none 
should exhibit a show of gladiators without an order from the Senate, 
and then not oftener than twice a year. 

It had been usual also with the knights and women of the first 
distinction to exhibit themselves as dancers upon the theatre ; he order- 
ed that not only these but their children and grandchildren should be 
restrained from such exercise for the future. He enacted that the sena- 
tors should be held in great reverence, adding to their dignity what he 
had taken from their power. He appointed new rules and limits to the 
manumission of slaves, and was himself very strict in the observance 
of them. These and other laws, all tending to extirpate vice or deter 
from crimes, gave the manner of the people another complexion, and 
the rough character of the Romans was now softened into that of the 
refined citizen. 

Indeed his own example a good deal tended to humanize his fellow- 
citizens ; for being placed above all equality, he had nothing to fear 
from condescension. He was familiar with all, and suffered himself to 
be reprimanded with the most patient humility. When one of his vete- 
ran soldiers entreated his protection, Augustus bid him apply to an 
advocate. " Ah !" replied the soldier, " it was not by proxy that I 
served you at the battle of Actium." Augustus was so pleased with 
this reply, that he pleaded his cause and gained it for him. One day a 
petition was presented to him with so much awe as to displease him. 
" Friend," cried he, " you seem as if you were offering something to 
an elephant rather than to a man — be bolder." Cornelius Cinna, Pom- 
pey's grandson, had entered into a conspiracy against Augustus ; he 
sent for the rest of the conspirators, reprimanded them, and dismissed 
them. But resolving to mortify Cinna by the greatness of his gene- 
rosity — "I have twice," said he, "given you your life — as an enemy 
and as a conspirator ; I now give you the consulship ; let us therefore 



How did the senate approve of his proceedings? — What wholesome laws did he 
enact? — What is told of his personal virtues? 

20* 



234 HISTORY OF ROME. 

oe friends for the future ; let us only contend in showing whether my 
confidence or your fidelity shall be victorious." 

Augustus had married Livid, the wife of Tiberius Nero, by the con- 
sent of her husband ; she had two sons, Tiberius, the elder, and Drusus. 
who was born three months after she had been married to Augustus, 
and who was thought to be his own son. Tiberius, whom he after- 
wards adopted, gave him great trouble ; for he w T as obliged to send him 
into exile for five years to the island of Rhodes. But his greatest 
affliction was the conduct of his daughter Julia, whom he had by Scri- 
bonia, his former wife, and who set no bounds to her lewdness. Au- 
gustus at first had thoughts of putting her to death ; but he banished 
her to Pandataria, and sent her mother to bear her company. 

Augustus at length retired from the fatigues of the state, and in some 
measure constituted Tiberius his successor. (A. D. 9.) He died soon 
after, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and the forty-first of his 
reign. He was studious of serving his country to the last, and the sor- 
row of the people seemed equal to his assiduity. It was decreed that 
all the women should mourn for him a whole year. Temples were 
erected to him; divine honours were allowed him ; and one Numericus 
Atticus received a large sum of money for swearing that he saw him 
ascending into heaven. 

Such were the honours paid to Augustus, whose power began in the 
slaughter, and terminated in the happiness of his subjects ; so that it 
was said of him, " that it would have been good for mankind if he had 
never been born, or if he had never died." It is possible that the cru- 
elties exercised in his triumvirate were suggested by his colleagues. 
In the case of Caesar's death, he might think that revenge was virtue. 
Certain it is that severities were necessary to restore public tranquillity ; 
for until the Roman spirit should be eradicated, no monarchy could be 
secure. During his reign, our Saviour was born in Judea. 

CHAPTER 21. 

TIBERIUS — CALIGULA. 

(A. D. 10.) Tiberius was fifty-six years old when he took upon him 
the government of the Roman empire. He had lived in a state of pro- 
found dissimulation under Augustus, and in the beginning of his reign 
nothing appeared but prudence, generosity and clemency. Germanicus, 
son of his brother Drusus, soon became an object of jealousy to Tibe- 
rius on account of his success over the Germans. Tiberius, therefore, 
recalled him home; and he was soon after appointed to a new dignity. 
He departed from Rome to an eastern expedition ; but he soon after 
met his death through the machinations of Cneius Piso, governor of 
Syria, who had been instructed by Tiberius to oppose Germanicus upon 

What domestic troubles did Augustus experience? — What age did he attain? — 
Whom did he appoint his successor? — What has been said of Augustus? — What 
particular personage was born during his reign? — How did Tiberius commence hia 
reigu ? 



DEATH OF TIBERIUS. 235 

every occasion, and even to procure his death. Nothing could exceed 
the distress of the whole empire upon hearing of the fate of Germani- 
cus ; but the people of Rome seemed to put no bounds to it : Piso was 
marked for destruction, and, to avoid the public, fury, he put an end to 
his life in his own house. 

Tiberius, having now no object of jealousy to keep him in awe, 
began to pull off the mask, and to appear in his natural character. In 
the beginning of his cruelties he took into his confidence Sejanus, a 
Roman knight, who gained his affections by the most refined degree of 
dissimulation. Sejanus used all his address to persuade Tiberius to 
retire to some agreeable retreat remote from Rome. From this he 
expected many advantages, since there could be no access to the empe- 
ror but through him. Tiberius soon after withdrew himself into the 
beautiful island of Capraea. Buried in this retreat, he gave himself up 
to abandoned pleasures, regardless of the miseries of his subjects. 

Drusus and Nero, the children of Germanicus, being declared ene- 
mies to the state, were starved to death in prison, while Agrippina, 
their mother, was sent into banishment. In this manner Sejanus pro- 
ceeded, removing all who stood between him and the empire, and every 
day increasing in confidence with Tiberius, and in influence with the 
Senate. The number of his statues exceeded even those of the em- 
peror ; people swore by his fortune, in the same manner as they would 
have done had he been upon the throne, and he was more dreaded than 
the tyrant who actually enjoyed the empire. But the rapidity of his 
rise seemed only preparatory to the greatness of his fall. He was ac- 
cused to the emperor of treason ; and soon after he was strangled by 
the order of the Senate. His innocent family, after being subjected to 
the most barbarous outrages, shared his fate. 

The death of Sejanus only lighted up the emperor's rage for further 
severities. He began to grow weary of single executions, and gave 
orders that all the accused should be put to death together, without 
further examination ; and thus the whole city was filled with slaughter 
and mourning. In this manner he lived, odious to the world, and trou- 
blesome to himself; an enemy to the lives of others, a tormentor of 
his own. At length, in the twenty-second year of his reign, he began 
to feel the approaches of his dissolution, and he fixed upon Caligula as 
his successor. He left his favourite island ; went upon the continent; 
and at last fixed at the promontory of Misenum. 

It was there that he fell into faintings, which all believed to be fatal. 
But it being reported that he was likely to recover, Marcia ordered that 
the dying emperor should be despatched, by smothering him with pil- 
lows, or as some will have it, by poison. Thus died Tiberius, in the 
seventy-eighth year of his age, and in the twenty-second of his reign. 
(A. D. 37.) 

It was in the eighteenth year of this emperor's reign that Christ was 
crucified ; as if the universal depravity of mankind wanted no less a 

What did Sejanus persuade the emperor to do ? — What was the fate of Sejanus? 
— In what manner did Tiberius spend his life ? — What is reported of his death ? — 
What happened in the eighteenth year of his reign ? 



M6b HISTORY OF ROME. 

j*^rifice to reclaim them. Pilate sent to Tiberius an account of Christ's 
passion, resurrection, and miracles : the emperor made a report of the 
whole to the Senate, desiring that Christ might be accounted a God by 
the Romans. But the Senate, displeased that the proposal had not come 
first from themselves, refused to allow of his apotheosis ; and they even 
went so far as to command by an edict, that all Christians should leave 
the city ; but Tiberius, by another edict, threatened death to such as 
should accuse them ; by which means they continued unmolested during 
his reign. 

The enormities of Caligula were concealed in the beginning of his 
reign ; but, in less than eight months, every appearance of moderation 
and clemency vanished ; while furious passions, unexampled avarice, 
and capricious cruelty, began to take their turn in his mind. His pride 
first appeared in his assuming to himself the title of ruler, which was 
usually granted only to kings. Not long after he claimed divine honours, 
and gave himself the names of such divinities as he thought most 
agreeable to his nature. For this purpose, he caused the heads of the 
statues of Jupiter and some other gods to be struck off, and his own to 
be put in their place. 

He frequently seated himself between Castor and Pollux, and ordered 
that all who came to their temple to worship should pay their adoration 
only to himself. Such was the extravagant inconsistency of this unac- 
countable idiot, that he changed his divinity as often as he changed his 
clothes, being at one time a male deity, at another a female. He even 
built and dedicated a temple to his own divinity, and he had numbers 
of priests. He admitted his wife and his horse to that dignity; and, 
to give a finishing stroke to his absurdities, he became a priest to him- 
self. 

Of all his vices, prodigality was the most remarkable. The luxuries 
of former emperors were simplicity itself when compared with those 
which he practised. He sometimes had services of pure gold presented 
before his guests instead of meat, observing that a man should be an 
economist or an emperor. He built a stable of marble, and a manger 
of ivory, for his horse Incitatus. He appointed the animal a house, 
furniture, and kitchen, in order to treat all its visitors with proper 
respect; and, it is said, he would have raised it to the consulship had 
not his death prevented. 

His impiety was but subordinate to his cruelties. He slew many 
of the Senate, and afterwards cited them to appear, as if they had killed 
themselves. He cast numbers of old and infirm men to wild beasts, to 
free the state from such unserviceable citizens. He usually fed his 
wild beasts with the bodies of those wretches whom he condemned ; 
and every tenth day sent off numbers of them to be thus devoured, 
which he jocosely called clearing his accounts. Upon one occasion he 
wished that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might des- 
patch them at a single blow. Such insupportable and capricious bar 



What extravagances marked Caligula's reign? — What divinity did he assume? 
- to whom did he build a temple ? — What is told of his prodigality ?-~Of his horse? 
- What other barbarities was he guilty of? 



CLAUDIUS. 237 

barities produced many secret conspiracies against him ; but these were 
for a while deferred upon account of his intended expedition against 
the Germans a«nd Britons. 

(A. D. 41.) For this purpose he caused numerous levies to be made, 
and talked with so much resolution, that it was universally believed 
he would conquer all before him. His march perfectly indicated the 
inequality of his temper ; sometimes it was so rapid that the cohorts 
were obliged to leave their standards behind them ; at other times it 
was so slow that it more resembled a pompous procession than a mili- 
tary expedition. However, all these mighty preparations ended in 
nothing. Instead of conquering Britain, he gave refuge to one of its 
banished princes ; and this he described in his letter to the Senate, as 
taking possession of the whole island. Instead of conquering Ger- 
many, he drew up his forces in order of battle, on the sea-shore of 
Batavia, and going on board his galley, he commanded his trumpets to 
sound, and the signal to be given, as if for an engagement. 

His men, having had previous orders, immediately fell to gathering 
the shells that lay upon the shore into their helmets, as the spoils of 
the conquered ocean. After this, calling his army together, like a gene- 
ral after a victory, he harangued them in a pompous manner,- — highly 
extolling their achievements ; and then distributing money among 
them, dismissed them with orders to be joyful, congratulating them 
upon their riches. At length the world was freed from this tyrant ; for 
he was assassinated by Cassius Cherea, tribune of the praetorian bands, 
who, with some other persons of*distinction, had formed a conspiracy 
against him, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and the fourth of his 
reign. 

CHAPTER 22. 
CLAUDIUS — EXPEDITION TO BRITAIN. 

(A. D. 42.) As soon as the death of Caligula was made public, it 
produced the greatest confusion. The conspirators, who only aimed at 
destroying the tyrant, without attending to a successor, had all retired 
to private places for safety. Some soldiers happening to run about the 
palace, discovered Claudius, Caligula's uncle, lurking in a secret 
place, where he had hid himself. Of this personage, who had hitherto 
been despised for his imbecility, they resolved to make an emperor ; 
accordingly, they carried him to the camp, where they proclaimed him, 
at a time he expected nothing but death. Claudius was now fifty years 
old. The complicated diseases of his infancy had in some measure 
affected all the faculties of his mind as well as body. He seemed in 
every part of life incapable of conducting himself. 

The beginning of his reign, however, gave the most promising hopes. 
He showed himself more moderate than his predecessors, with regard 
to titles and honours. He was assiduous in hearing and examining 



On what expedition did he set out? — What was the result? — By what means 
did he die ? — Who was next proclaimed ? — What was his character ? — What dis 
tinsuished the commencement of his reign ? 



38 HISTORY OF ROME. 

complaints ; and frequently administered justice in person with great 
mildness. He even undertook to gratify the people by foreign conquest. 
The Britons, who had for nearly a hundred years been left in sole pos- 
session of their island, sought the mediation of Rome to quell their 
intestine commotions. Accordingly, Plautius, the prsetor, commanded 
the expedition ; and the Britons, who were conducted by their king 
Cynobelin, were several times overthrown. 

(A. D. 46.) These successes induced Claudius to go into Britain in 
person ; but the time he continued on the island, which was about six- 
teen days, was taken up more in receiving homage than extending his 
conquests. He returned to Rome in triumph ; triumphal arches were 
erected for his honour; and annual games were instituted to comme- 
morate his victories. The war was vigorously prosecuted by Plautius, 
and his lieutenant Vespasian, who fought thirty battles, and reduced a 
part of the island into the form of a Roman province. (A. D. 51.) 

This war broke out afresh under the government of Ostorius, who 
succeeded Plautius. The Iceni, the Cangi, and the Brigantes, made a 
powerful resistance, though they were at length overcome ; but the 
Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, under their brave king Carac- 
tacus, made a gallant defence, and for nine years kept the Romans in 
continual alarm. At length Caractacus was taken prisoner, and led 
captive to Rome. The emperor being struck with his magnanimity, 
generously pardoned him, and Ostorius was decreed a triumph. 

Claudius, in the beginning of his reign, gave the highest hopes of a 
happy continuance; but he soon committed to his favourites all the 
concerns of the empire. One of his instructors was his wife Messalina, 
whose name is become a common appellation for women of abandoned 
characters. By her Claudius was urged on to commit cruelties which 
he considered only as wholesome severities, while her debaucheries 
became every day more notorious, and exceeded what had ever been in 
Rome. For her crimes and enormities, however, she, together with her 
paramour, Caius Silius, suffered that death they both had so justly 
deserved. 

Claudius took for his second wife, Agrippina, the daughter of his 
brother Germanicus, a woman of a cruel and ambitious spirit, whose 
only aim was to procure the succession for Nero, her son by a former 
marriage. She therefore caused a poison to be given to the emperor 
among mushrooms. Shortly after having eaten, he dropped down in- 
sensible ; but this caused no alarm, as it was usual with him to eat till 
he had stupified his faculties, and was obliged to be carried off to his 
bed from the table. His constitution seeming to overcome the potion, 
Agrippina directed a wretch of a physician, her creature, to introduce a 
poisoned feather into his throat, under pretence of making him vomit, 
and thus to dispatch him. 

What expedition did he undertake ? — What king was taken prisoner to Rome ?— 
What effect had the wife of Claudius on his government? — What was the end of 
Claudius / 



NERO. 239 

CHAPTER 23. 
NERO — G ALBA. 

(A. D. 55.) Nero, though but seventeen years old, began his reiam 
with the general approbation of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, 
and humane. But as he increased in years his wickedness increased 
in proportion. The execution of his mother, Agrippina, (A. D. 60,) 
was the first alarming instance he gave of his cruelty. There was a 
sort of odd contrast in his disposition, — for while he practised cruelties 
sufficient to make the mind shudder with horror, he was fond of those 
amusing arts which soften and refine the heart. He was particularly 
addicted to music, and was not totally ignorant of poetry ; and chariot 
driving was his favourite pursuit. 

But his cruelty exceeded all his other extravagances. A great part 
of the city of Rome was consumed by fire in his time, (A. D. 64,) and 
to him most historians ascribe the conflagration. It is said that he 
stood upon a high tower, during the continuance of the flames, enjoying 
the sight, and singing in a theatrical manner verses upon the burning 
of Troy. He used every art to throw the odium of so detestable an 
action from himself, and to fix it upon the Christians, against whom a 
most dreadful persecution was raised. Some were crucified, and others 
burned alive. In this persecution St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter 
was crucified with his head downwards. 

A conspiracy formed against Nero by Piso, a man of great power 
and integrity, which was prematurely discovered, opened a new train 
of suspicions that destroyed many of the principal families of Rome. 
Suspecting Seneca, the philosopher, as an accomplice, he sent him or- 
ders to die. Seneca seemed no way discomposed at the command ; 
and he caused the veins of his arms and legs to be opened, and soon 
after expired. Lucan the poet, and nephew to Seneca, met the same 
fate. He died while he was repeating that beautiful passage in his 
Pharsalia, descriptive of a person dying in similar circumstances, which 
begins thus, — 

" Nee, sicut vutnere, sanguis 

Emiouit lentus: ruptis cadit undique venis," &c. 

C. Petronius was accused of being privy to Piso's conspiracy, and 
was committed to prison. Petronius, who could not endure the anxiety 
of suspense, resolved upon putting himself to death, by causing his 
veins to be opened and closed again from time to time. Shortly after 
him, Numicius Thermus, Bareas Soranus, and Peetus Thraseas were 
put to death. Nor did the empress Poppaea escape. At length human 
nature grew weary of bearing her persecutor ; and the whole world 
seemed to rouse, as if by common consent, to rid the earth of a monster. 

Sergius Galba, governor of Spain, who was remarkable for his 

What atrocities are told of Nero ? — Did he set fire to Rome ? — On whom did he 
fix the odium? — Who suffered martyrdom 1-^ What conspiracy was formed against 
him ? — Who perished through it ? 



240 HISTORY OF ROME. 

wisdom in peace, and courage in war, accepted an invitation from Vin* 
dex to march with an army towards Rome. From the moment he de- 
clared against Nero, the tyrant considered himself as fallen, and cried 
out, " that he was utterly undone." The revolt becoming general, he 
was driven to a state of desperation, and desired that one of his fa- 
vourite gladiators might despatch him; but even with this request no 
one would comply. 

In this distress, Phaon, one of his freedmen, offered him his country- 
nouse, about four miles distant, where he might for some time remain 
concealed. Nero accepted the offer, and arrived at the house with four 
of his domestics, after a journey crowded with dangers and adventures. 
The Senate, finding the praetorian guards had taken part with Galba, 
declared him emperor, and condemned Nero to die. When he was told 
of the resolution of the Senate, by the assistance of Epaphroditus, his 
freedman and secretary, he gave himself a mortal wound with a dagger 
and expired, after he had reigned thirteen years, seven months, and 
twenty-eight days, and in the thirty-second year of his age. 

(A. D. 69.) Galba was seventy-two years old when he. was de- 
clared emperor, and was then in Spain with his legions. He soon found 
that being raised to the throne was but an inlet to new disquietudes. 
He seemed to have three objects in view : to curb the insolence of the 
soldiers; to punish those vices which had risen to an enormous height 
in the last reign ; and to replenish the exchequer, which had been 
drained by the prodigality of his predecessors. But, permitting him- 
self to be governed by favourites, he at one time showed himself severe 
and frugal, at another, remiss and prodigal ; condemning some illus- 
trious persons without any hearing, and pardoning others though 
guilty. 

In consequence of this, seditions were kindled and factions promoted. 
Galba was sensible that, beside his age, he was less respected for want 
of an heir. He resolved, therefore, to adopt a person whose virtues 
might deserve such advancement, and protect his declining age from 
danger. He chose Piso Lucinianus, whose conduct showed that he 
was highly deserving this distinction. The adoption of Piso, however, 
was coldly received by the army and the Senate, who had been so long 
used to bribery and corruption, that they could now bear no emperor 
who was not in a capacity for satisfying their avarice. 

CHAPTER 24. 

OTHO — VITELLIUS — VESPASIAN. 

Otho, who had long been a favourite of Galba, and hoped to be 
adopted as successor in the empire, finding himself disappointed, re- 
solved upon obtaining the empire by force, and publicly avowed his in- 
tention of dethroning Galba. The soldiers seconded his views, and 



Who marched against Nero? — By what means did Nero die ? — How long had 
he reigned ? — Who succeeded ? — What was his character ? — Whom did he adopt 
for his successor ? 



VESPASIAN. 241 

immediately proclaimed him emperor. Soon after, finding Galba in 
some measure deserted by his adherents, the soldiers rushed in upon 
him, and struck oft* his head, which they presented to Otho, who ordered 
it to be contemptuously carried round the camp. His short reign of 
seven months was as illustrious by his own virtues as it was contami- 
nated by the vices of his favourites. 

Otho, who was now elected emperor, began his reign by a signal 
instance of clemency, in pardoning Marius Celsus, who had been highly 
favoured by Galba; and also advanced him to the highest honours, 
asserting that " fidelity deserved every reward." In the mean time, 
the legions in Lower Germany, having been purchased by the large 
gifts and specious promises of Vitellius their general, were induced to 
proclaim him emperor. Otho departed from Rome with all haste to 
give Vitellius battle. The army of Vitellius, which consisted of se- 
venty thousand men, was commanded by his generals Valens and Ce- 
cina, he himself remaining in Gaul in order to bring up the rest of his 
forces. In a general engagement, Otho's forces were totally overthrown, 
and himself killed shortly after, having reigned three months and five 
days. 

Vitellius was declared emperor by the Senate, (A. D. 70,) and 
received the marks of distinction which were now accustomed to follow 
the appointments of the strongest side. Upon his arrival at Rome, he 
entered the city, not as a place he came to govern with justice, but as 
a town that was become his own by the laws of conquest. He soon 
gave himself up to all kinds of luxury and profuseness ; but gluttony 
was so much his favourite vice, that he brought himself to a habit of 
vomiting, in order to be able to renew his meals at pleasure. By his 
vices and enormous cruelties, he became a burden to himself and odious 
to all mankind ; and having become insupportable to the inhabitants of 
Rome, the legions of the east unanimously resolved to make Vespasian 
emperor. 

Vitellius, though buried in sloth and luxury, was resolved to make 
an effort to defend the empire. His two commanders, Valens and Ce- 
cina, were ordered to make all possible preparations to resist the invad- 
ers. The first army that entered Italy with a hostile intention was 
under the command of Antonius Primus, Vespasian's commander, who 
soon arrived before the walls of the city ; but the forces of Vitellius 
resolved upon defending it to the utmost extremity. It was attacked 
with fury ; while the army within, sallying upon the besiegers, de- 
fended it with equal obstinacy ; but at length the besieged were driven 
into the city, and a dreadful slaughter made of them in the streets, 
which they vainly attempted to defend. Vitellius was put to death by 
the conquering soldiers, who, after dragging the dead body through the 
streets with a hook, threw it, with all possible ignominy, into the river 
Tiber. 

Vespasian (A. D. 70,) was declared emperor by the unanimous con- 



What is remarkable of Galba's short reign ?— Who procured his death ?— -What 
distinguished the reign of Otho ? — Who was his rival ? — How long did he reign ? — 
What is the character of Vitellius ? 
21 



242 HISTORY OF ROME. 

sent both of the Senate and the army. He was now in Egypt; but 
giving his son Titus the command of the army that was to lay siege to 
Jerusalem, he set out for Rome, and was met many miles from the city 
by the Senate and the inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimony of 
their joy, in having an emperor of such great and experienced virtue. 
Nor did he in the least disappoint their expectations ; being equally 
assiduous in rewarding merit, and pardoning his adversaries. In the 
mean time Titus carried on the war against the Jews with vigour, and 
after a siege of six months, their city was entirely rased by the plough, 
so that, according to our Saviour's prophecy, not one stone remained 
upon another. The greatest part of the populace were put to the sword ; 
those who perished in this siege amounted to above a million ; and the 
captives to a hundred thousand, at the least. 

The return of. Titus to Rome in triumph with Vespasian, his father, 
was marked with all the magnificence and joy in the power of man to 
express. This was the first time that Rome saw the father and the son 
triumph together. A triumphal arch was erected upon this occasion, 
on which were described all the victories of Titus over the Jews, and 
it remains almost entire to this day. Few emperors have received a 
better character from historians than Vespasian ; yet his numerous 
acts of generosity and magnificence could not preserve him from the 
imputation of rapacity and avarice ; but even this may in some degree 
be excused by the deplorable state of the finances, the extravagances 
of former conquerors having quite exhausted the treasury. 

Having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, and deserving 
their affection, he was surprised with an indisposition at Campania, 
which he declared would be fatal. Perceiving his end approaching, as 
he was just expiring he exerted himself, and cried out, " An emperor 
should die standing," whereupon, raising himself upon his feet, he 
expired in the arms of those who sustained him. 

CHAPTER 25. 

TITUS — DOMITIAN. 

Titus was joyfully received as emperor, and began his reign with 
the practice of every virtue that became a sovereign and a man. Dur- 
ing the life of his father there had been many imputations against him, 
both for cruelty, lust, and prodigality ; but, on his exaltation to the 
throne, he seemed to have taken leave of his former vices. His first 
step was the moderation of his passions, and the bridling of his incli- 
nations. He had long loved Berenice, sister and wife of Agrippa, 
king of Judea, a woman of great beauty and refined allurements ; 
but knowing that the connexion was disagreeable to the people of Rome, 
he gained the victory over his affections, and sent her away, notwith 

Where was Vespasian when he was declared emperor? — Did the people approve 
of Vespasian's accession? — What was the result of the Jewish war? — What is the 
general character of Vespasian ? — What expression did he use before his death ? — 
Ilow long did he reign ? — What characterizes the beginning of Titus's reign ? 



DOMITIAN. 243 

standing their mutual passion. He next discarded those who had been 
the ministers of his pleasures. This moderation, added to his justice 
and generosity, procured him the appellation of The delight of mankind. 

His courtesy and readiness to do good have been celebrated even by 
Christian writers ; his principal rule being not to send away a person 
vlissatisfied. One night recollecting that he had done nothing benefi- 
cial to mankind during the day, he cried out " I have lost a day." In 
.he first year of his reign an eruption of Mount Vesuvius overwhelmed 
many towns, particularly those of Pompeii and Herculaneum ; throw- 
ing the ashes into countries more than a hundred miles distant : upon 
this occasion Pliny the naturalist lost his life ; being impelled by curi- 
osity to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the flames. This 
and other disasters were in some measure counterbalanced by the suc- 
cesses in Britain, under Agricola. This excellent general having been 
sent into Britain towards the end of Vespasian's reign, showed himself 
equally skilful in quelling the refractory and civilizing those that had 
submitted to the Roman power. 

The Ordovices, or inhabitants of North Wales, with the isle of An- 
glesey, were the first that were subdued. He introduced the Roman 
mode of dress and living. He caused the sons of the nobility to be 
instructed in the liberal arts, and to be taught the Latin language. He 
induced them to build temples, theatres, and stately houses. Thus, by 
degrees, this barbarous people began to assume the manners of their 
conquerors. Upon account of these successes in Britain, Titus was 
saluted Imperator for the fifteenth time ; but lie did not long survive 
this honour, being seized with a violent fever, a little distance from 
Rome. He expired shortly after, but not without suspicion of treachery 
from his brother Domitian, in the forty-first year of his age, having 
reigned two years, two months, and twenty days. A. D.81. 

The beginning of Domitian's reign was equally remarkable for his 
clemency, liberality and justice. But he soon began to show the natu- 
ral deformity of his mind. He neglected all kinds of study, addicting 
himself to meaner pursuits, such as archery and gaming. He instituted 
contests in music, horsemanship, and wrestling ; but banished philoso- 
phers and mathematicians from Rome. The meanness of his occupa- 
tion in solitude was a contrast to these exhibitions; he spent his hours 
in catching flies and piercing them with a bodkin. Of his natural 
malevolence, his ungrateful treatment of Agricola afforded a convincing 
proof; being jealous of his military honours acquired in Britain, he 
was recalled, and ended his days in retirement. 

Domitian ordered his statues to be made only of gold or silver. He 
assumed to himself divine honours, requiring to be addressed by the 
same appellation which they gave to the divinity. He caused num- 
bers of the most illustrious senators to be put to death upon the most 
trifling pretences, and often threatened to extirpate their whole body 
entirely. Lucius Antonius, governor of Upper Germany, knowing how 

What eruption happened in this reign ? — What successes did his general gain 
in Britain ? — How long did Titus reign? — Describe the character of Domitian. - 
What honour did he assume ? — Who contended against him ? 



244 HISTORY OF ROME. 

much the emperor was detested, resolved upon striking for the throne, 
at the head of a formidable army. His success was for some time 
doubtful, but he was at length totally routed. 

But a period was soon to be put to this monster's cruelties. Among 
those whom he had suspected was his wife Domitia. It was the 
tyrant's method to put down the names of such as he meant to destroy 
in his tablets, which he kept about him. Domitia, fortunately happen- 
ing to get a sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the 
catalogue. Roused both by her fears and her resentments, she com- 
municated the fact to several senators and officers of the household, 
who, like herself, were proscribed. A conspiracy was entered into, 
and the assassination of the tyrant was effected in the forty-fifth year 
of his age, and the sixteenth of his iniquitous reign. It was in this 
reign that John, the beloved Apostle, was banished to the isle of Pat- 
mos. Domitian was the last of the emperors commonly called the 
twelve Caesars, among whom only three, Augustus, Vespasian, and 
Titus, have any claims upon the respect of posterity. 

CHAPTER 26. 
NERVA — TRAJAN — ADRIAN. 

The Senate loaded the memory of Domitian with every reproach. 
His statues were taken down, his inscriptions erased, and his funeral 
obsequies omitted. But.the soldiers, whom he had loaded with favours, 
sincerely regretted their benefactor. The Senate chose Cocceius Nerva 
as his successor. He is said to have been of an illustrious family, 
either of Spain or of Crete (now Candia), and above sixty-five years 
old when called to the throne ; an elevation which he owed solely to 
his virtues, moderation, respect to the laws, and the blameless tenor of 
his life. The people, long accustomed to tyranny, regarded Nerva's 
gentle reign with rapture. He made a vow that no senator of Rome 
should be put to death by his command, during his reign. 

A sovereign of such generosity and mildness was, however, not with- 
out his enemies. Vigilius Rufus, who opposed his accession, was not 
only pardoned, but made his colleague in the consulship. Calpurnius 
Crassus, with some others who formed a conspiracy against him, he 
banished. But the most dangerous insurrection was that of the praeto- 
rian bands, of which it was difficult to stop the progress. So disagree- 
able a constraint upon the emperor's inclinations was attended with the 
most happy effects, as it caused the adoption of Trajan to succeed him. 
About three months afterwards, while in a violent passion with one 
Regulus, a senator, he was seized with a fever, of which he died, after 
a reign of one year, four months, and nine days. He was the first 
foreigner that had reigned in Rome. 

On the death of Nerva, Trajan quitted Germany, where he had been 



And with what success? — Repeat the particulars of his death. — What race ended 
in Domitian ? — Who succeeded ? — What was Nerva's character ? — Whom did lie 
adopt ? — How long did Nerva reign ? 



TRAJAN. 245 

governor ; and when he arrived at Rome, he received a letter from Plu- 
tarch,* the philosopher, who had the honour of being his tutor, con- 
gratulating him on his elevation, and, after some excellent suggestions, 
adding, "if you follow these instructions, then shall I glory in having 

{(resumed to give them ; if you neglect what I advise, then will this 
etter be my testimony that you have not erred through the counsel of 
Plutarch." 

This good monarch's application to business, his moderation towards 
his enemies, his modesty in exaltation, his liberality to the deserving, 
his frugal management of the resources of the state, were the subjects 
of panegyric among his contemporaries, and continue to be the admira- 
tion of posterity. The first war he was engaged in after coming to the 
throne was with the Dacians, who, after a severe struggle, were routed 
with great slaughter, and Decebalus, their king, compelled to acknow- 
ledge himself a vassal to the Roman empire. The Roman soldiers in 
the above battle, wanting linen to bind up their wounds, the emperor 
tore his own robes to supply them. 

The Dacians a second time renewed hostilities ; and Trajan, to facili- 
tate his conquest, built a stupendous bridge of twenty-two arches across 
the Danube. Then pursuing the war with vigour, he subdued the whole, 
and added it to the empire. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph. 
Having given peace and prosperity to the empire, he was loved, honoured, 
and almost adored. He adorned the city with public buildings, he freed 
it from such as lived by their vices, he entertained persons of merit 
with familiarity, and so little did he fear his enemies, that he could 
scarcely be induced to believe that he had any. 

It would have been happy for Trajan's memory had he shown equal 
clemency to the Christians ; but, about the ninth year of his reign, he 
looked upon them with a suspicious eye, and numbers of them were 
put to death. But, on finding that the Christians were an innocent and 
inoffensive people, he suspended their punishments. 

During this reign, there was a dreadful insurrection of the Jews in 
most parts of the empire. This infatuated people, ever expecting some 
signal deliverance, took advantage of Trajan's expedition to the east, 
to massacre all the Greeks and Romans whom they could get into their 
power. The rebellion began at Cyrene, in Africa ; from thence the 
flame extended to Egypt, and next to the isle of Cyprus. Shocking 
were the barbarities exercised on the unoffending inhabitants. How- 
ever, the governors of the respective provinces opposed the tumultuous 
fury, and retaliated with much severity the cruelties of the Jews. 

Trajan, on his return to Rome from his conquests in the east, died 
of an apoplexy, in the city of Seleucia, in the sixty-third year of his 
age, after a reign of nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days. 
(A. D. 117.) 

* A native of Greece, who wrote the lives of illustrious men, &c. 

Who wrote to Trajan at his elevation? — What is recorded of his character? — 
What conquest did he make ? — Was he beloved by his people ? — Did he reward 
merit ? — What is a stain on Trajan's character ? — What shocking barbarities were 
perpetrated by the Jews? — How long did Trajan reign? 

21* 



246 HISTORY OF ROME. 

Adrian, the nephew of Trajan, was chosen to succeed him. He 
began his reign by pursuing a course opposite to that of his predeces- 
sor, taking every method of declining war, and promoting the arts of 
peace. He made peace with the Parthians, and, satisfied with preserv- 
ing the ancient limits of the empire, he seemed no way ambitious of 
extensive conquest. Adrian was one of the most remarkable of the 
Roman emperors for the variety of his endowments. He was highly 
gifted in all the accomplishments both of the body and mind. He com- 
posed with great beauty, both in prose and verse ; he pleaded at the 
bar, and was one of the best orators of his time. 

Nor were his virtues fewer than his accomplishments. His mode- 
ration and clemency appeared by pardoning the injuries he received 
when he was yet but a private man. One day meeting a person who 
had been his inveterate enemy, "my good friend," said he, "you have 
escaped, for I am made emperor." He was affable to his friends, and 
gentle to persons of meaner stations. It being his maxim, that he had 
been elected emperor, not for his own good, but for the benefit of man- 
kind. These virtues were, however, contrasted by vices of consider- 
able magnitude ; or rather, he wanted strength of mind to preserve his 
rectitude of character without deviation. 

CHAPTER 27. 
ADRIAN'S EXPEDITION — ANTONINUS PIUS — MARCUS AURELIUS. 

He was scarcely settled on the throne, when several of the northern 
barbarians began to be truly formidable to Rome. Adrian broke down 
the bridge over the Danube, which his predecessor had built, sensible 
that the same passage which was open to him was equally convenient 
to the incursions of his barbarous neighbours. Having first seen that 
all things were regulated at Rome for the safety of the public, he com- 
menced his progress through the empire. It was one of his maxims 
that an emperor should, like the sun, diffuse vigour over all parts of the 
earth. 

He therefore, w r ith a splendid court, entered Gaul. From Gaul he went 
into Germany, thence to Holland, and he afterwards passed over into 
Britain, where, reforming many abuses, he built, for the security of the 
southern parts of the kingdom, a wall of wood and earth, extending 
from the river Eden, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in Northumberland. 
From Britain, returning through Gaul, he went to Spain, his native 
country, where he was received with great joy. Returning to Rome, 
after continuing some time, he prepared for his journey to the east, 
which was hastened by a new invasion of the Parthians. He then 
visited the famous city of Athens, where, making a considerable stay, 
he was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries,* which were accounted 

* These were instituted in honour of Ceres. 

What course did Adrian pursue ? — What virtues did he possess? — Had he any 
vices ? — What incursions were made by the barbarians? — Relate Adrian's travels 



ANTONINUS PIUS. 247 

the most sacred in the Pagan mythology. In this place, he remitted 
the severity of the Christian persecution. He was even so far recon- 
ciled to this sect as to think of introducing Christ among the number 
of the gods. 

From thence he crossed to Africa, and spent much time in reforming 
abuses and erecting magnificent buildings. Among the rest he ordered 
Carthage, in Africa proper, to be rebuilt ; and Adrianople, the second 
city of European Turkey, to be repaired. After returning to Rome, 
he travelled a second time into .Greece ; passed over into Asia Minor, 
Syria and Palestine, Arabia and Egypt, where he ordered Pompey's 
tomb to be repaired and beautified. He gave orders for the rebuilding 
of Jerusalem, which was performed with great expedition, by the 
assistance of the Jews, who now began to conceive hopes of being 
restored to their long-lost kingdom. These expectations only served 
to aggravate their calamities ; for being incensed at the Pagan and 
Christian worshippers, they fell upon them with merciless cruelty. 
The Jews were retaliated upon by the Romans, with the demolition of 
their best towns, and the loss of many thousands who fell in battle. 

Having spent thirteen years in travelling and reforming the abuses 
of the empire, Adrian resolved to end his days at Rome; and nothing 
could be more grateful to the people than this resolution. Though he 
now began to grow old and unwieldy, he remitted not his former assi- 
duity to the public welfare. His chief amusement was in conversing 
with the most celebrated men in every art and science. He extended 
the protection of the law to slaves, forbidding masters to kill them, as 
had been before allowed. At length finding his strength declining, he 
adopted Antoninus as his successor. 

His bodiJy infirmities became at last so insupportable, that he desired 
some of his attendants to despatch him. Antoninus, however, would 
by no means permit any of his domestics to be guilty of so great an 
impiety, but used all the arts in his power to reconcile the emperor to 
sustain life. He was frequently heard to cry out, " how miserable a 
thing is it to seek death and not to find it." At length the moment 
arrived which terminated his mortal sufferings. He expired while 
repeating the stanzas so well known,* in the sixty-second year of his 
age, after a prosperous reign of twenty-one years and eleven months. 

Titus Antoninus, (A. D. 183,) at the time he succeeded to the throne, 
was above fifty years old, and had passed through the most important 
offices of the state with great integrity and application. His virtues in 

* Animula, vagula, blandula, Oh fleeting spirit, wandering fire, 

Hospes, comesque, corporis ; That long hast warmed my tender breast ; 

Q,ufe nunc abibis in loca ? Wilt thou no more my frame inspire 1 

Pallidula, rigida, nudula, No more a pleasing, cheerful guest ? 

Nee, ut soles, dabis jocos. Whither, ah whither art thou flying ? 

To what dark undiscovered shore 1 
Thou seem'st all trembling, shivering, dying, 
And wit and humour are no more. 

Pope. 

Did he order Carthage to be rebuilt? — What disaster happened to the Jews? — 
How long did the emperor Adrian spend in travelling ? — How long did he reign ? 
— What was his age ? 



248 HISTORY OF ROME. 

private life were no way impaired by exaltation, as he showed himself 
one of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and modera- 
tion. He was surnamed the Pious, both for his tenderness to his pre- 
decessor, Adrian, when dying, and for his attachment to the religion 
of his country. He was an eminent rewarder of learned men, to whom 
he gave large pensions and great honours ; drawing them from all parts 
of the world. He sent for Apollonius, the famous Stoic philosopher, 
to instruct his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius. But while the good 
emperor was thus employed in making mankind happy ; in directing 
their conduct by his own example ; or reproving their follies with the 
keenness of rebuke, he was seized with a violent fever. In the pre- 
sence of his friends and principal officers, he confirmed the adoption 
of Aurelius, and expired in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after a 
prosperous reign of twenty-two years and almost eight months. 

Marcus Aurelius, (A. D. 161,) though left sole successor, took 
Lucius Verus as his associate and equal in the government. Aurelius 
was as remarkable for his virtues and accomplishments as Verus was 
for his ungovernable passions and debauched morals. The one was an 
example of the greatest goodness and wisdom; the other of ignorance, 
sloth, and extravagance. Shortly after the two emperors were settled 
on the throne, the empire was attacked on every side by the barbarous 
nations which surrounded it. The Catti invaded Germany and Rhaetia, 
but were repelled by Victorinus. The Britons likewise revolted, but 
were repressed by Callifurnius. The Parthians, under their king Volo- 
geses, made an irruption more dreadful than either of the former, 
destroying the Roman legions in Armenia, then entering Syria, driving 
out the Roman governor, and filling the whole country with terror and 
confusion. Verus marched in person to oppose these barbarians ; but 
upon entering Antioch, he gave an indulgence to every appetite, leaving 
all the glory of the field to his lieutenants, who fought against the 
invaders with great success. 

In four years the Romans entered far into Parthia, and subdued it ; 
but on their return, more than half their army perished by pestilence 
and famine. However, Verus resolved to enjoy the honours of a 
triumph, so hardly earned by others, and he returned to Rome, to par- 
take of one with Aurelius, which was solemnized with great pomp and 
splendour. But his return seemed fatal to the empire ; for his army 
carried the plague from Parthia, and disseminated the infection into the 
provinces through which it passed. 

Nothing could exceed the miserable state of the empire upon the 
return of Verus. He himself, unawed by example or the calamities 
surrounding him, was giving way to unheard-of debaucheries ; a raging 
pestilence was spreading terror and desolation through all parts of the 
western world ; the barbarous nations around the empire were making 
their irruptions even into Italy itself; a violent persecution raged 

What was the character of Antoninus ? — How long did he reign ? — Whom did 
he adopt ? — Did Aurelius reign alone ? — What were the characteristics of the two 
emperors ? — What eruptions were made ? — What was the success of the Parthian 
expedition ? — In what state was the empire at the return of Verus ? 



MARCUS AURELIUS. 249 

against the Christians in all parts of the empire ; and Justin Martyr, 
Polycarp, and a prodigious number, suffered martyrdom. In this scene 
of universal tumult, desolation, and distress, there was nothing left but 
the virtues and the wisdom of one man to restore tranquillity, and bring 
back happiness to the empire. Aurelius began his endeavours by 
marching against the Marcomanni and Quadi, taking Verus with him. 
They came up with the Marcomanni, near the city of Aquileia, and, 
after a furious engagement, routed their whole army. Verus was seized 
with an apoplexy on his return to Rome, and expired, after he had 
reigned, in conjunction with Aurelius, nine years, at the age of thirty- 
nine. (A. D. 171.) 

Aurelius, who had hitherto sustained the fatigues of governing not 
only an empire, but his colleague, began to act with greater diligence 
and more vigour than ever. After subduing the Marcomanni he re- 
turned to Rome, where he resumed his endeavours to benefit and im- 
prove mankind. This good emperor, having detected Avidius in a 
conspiracy against him, generously granted him his pardon. Some who 
were near his person took the liberty to blame his conduct, saying, that 
Avidius would not have been so generous had he been conqueror; to 
this the emperor sublimely replied, " I never served the gods so ill, or 
reigned so irregularly, as to fear Avidius could be conqueror." 

Having restored prosperity to his subjects and peace to mankind, he 
was informed that the Scythians, and other barbarous nations of the 
north, were invading the empire. He once more resolved to expose 
his aged person in the defence of his country, and made speedy prepa- 
rations to oppose them. He spent three days in giving the people lec- 
tures on regulating their lives ; and then departed upon his expedition, 
amidst the prayers and lamentations of his subjects. Upon going to 
open his third campaign, he was seized at Vienna with the plague, 
which stopped the progress of his success. His fears for the youth 
and unpromising disposition of Commodus, his son and successor, 
seemed to give him great uneasiness. He therefore addressed his 
friends and the principal officers that were gathered round his bed, that, 
as his son was now losing one father, he hoped he would find many in 
them : he expired soon after, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having 
reigned nineteen years ; and with him seemed to die the glory and pros- 
perity of the empire. 

CHAPTER 28. - 

COMMODUS— PERTINAX— SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. 

The merits of Aurelius procured Commodus an easy accession to the 
throne. Great care had been taken of his education ; and though it 
was notorious that weakness of intellect had made him the slave of 
unworthy favourites, it was hoped that the bright example of his father 
would lead him to reject the counsellors of his youth and the compa- 

How long did Verus reign ? — What conduct did Aurelius pursue after the death 
of Verus ? — Where did Aurelius die ? — How long had he reigned ? 



250 HISTORY OF ROME. 

nions of his follies, when he came to direct an empire. But his whole 
reign was a tissue of wantonness and folly, cruelty and injustice, rapa- 
city and corruption. He went with his associates to brothels ; spent 
the day in feasting, and the night in the most abominable debaucheries. 
He would sometimes go about the markets, in a frolic, with small wares, 
as a petty chapman ; sometimes he affected to be a horse-courser ; at 
other times he drove his own chariot in a slave's habit. 

It was his method, like that of Domitian, to set down in a roll the 
names of such as he intended to put to death. Marcia, his concubine, 
accidentally obtained a sight of this roll, and was alarmed at seeing her 
own name in it, and also those of Leetus, his general, and Electus, his 
chamberlain. She immediately revealed her terrors to Lsetus and Elec- 
tus, who, perceiving their dangerous situation, instantly resolved upon 
the tyrant's death, and they succeeded in strangling him, in the thirty- 
first year of his age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine 
months. (A. D. 192.) 

Helvius Pertinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy 
of the most exalted station, and who had been previously fixed upon to 
succeed, was carried to the camp by the conspirators, and proclaimed 
emperor, in the sixty-eighth year of his age ; and, soon after, the crti- 
zens and senate acknowledged him. Nothing could exceed the justice 
and wisdom of this monarch's short reign. But the praetorian soldiers, 
whose manners he had attempted to reform, having been long corrupted 
by the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, resolved to 
dethrone him ; and, marching through the streets in a tumultuous man- 
ner, they entered his palace, without opposition, where a Tungrian sol- 
dier struck him dead with a blow of a lance, after he had reigned but 
three months. 

(A. D. 201.) The soldiers made proclamation that they would sell 
the empire to him that would give the most. Two bidders were found, 
Sulpician and Didius ; the former, a consular person, prefect of the city, 
and son-in-law to the late emperor Pertinax ; the latter, a consular 
person likewise, and the wealthiest man in the city. The offers of 
Didius, who produced immense sums of money, prevailed. The sol- 
diers instantly swore to obey him as emperor ; and being conducted to 
the senate-house, he addressed the few that were present in a laconic 
speech : " Fathers, you want an emperor, and I am the fittest person 
you can choose." The choice of the soldiers was confirmed by the 
Senate, and Didius was acknowledged emperor in the fifty-seventh year 
of his age. He gave himself up to ease and inactivity, utterly regard- 
less of the duties of his station. He was mild and gentle, indeed, but 
that avarice, by which he became opulent, still followed him in his ex- 
altation, and it soon made the army detest him. The people also, against 
whose consent he was chosen, were not less his enemies. 

Soon after, Septimius Severus, an African by birth, being proclaimed 

How did Commodus conduct himself? — What occasioned his death? — What 
date ? — How long did Helvetius Pertinax reign ? — How was the kingdom then dis- 
posed of? — Did Didius give satisfaction ? — What was his particular vice ? — Who 
was Severus ? 



SEVERUS, CARACALLA AND GETA. 251 

by his army, began by promising to revenge the death of Pertinax. — 
Didius, upon being informed of his approach towards Rome, sent am- 
bassadors, offering to make him a partner in the empire. But Severus 
rejected his offer ; and the Senate, perceiving the weakness and timidity 
of their present master, abandoned him. Didius was despatched soon 
after by order of the Senate, and Severus was proclaimed in his stead. 

Severus having overcome Niger and Albinus, who were his com- 
petitors for the empire, assumed the reins of government, uniting great 
vigour with the most refined policy ; yet his African cunning was con- 
sidered as a singular defect in him. He is celebrated for his wit, learn- 
ing, and prudence, but execrated for his perfidy and cruelty. In short, 
he seemed equally capable of the greatest acts of virtue and the most 
bloody severities. Having previously confided the government, out of 
domestic policy, to one Plautian, a favourite, to whose daughter he 
married his son Caracalla, he set out against the Parthians, (A. D. 198,) 
who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. He prosecuted the 
war with his usual expedition and success, and at length returned to 
Rome in triumph. 

During this interval, Plautian, who had been left to direct the affairs 
of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire himself. Upon the 
emperor's return, he employed a tribune of the praetorian cohorts to as- 
sassinate both him and his son Caracalla. The tribune informed Seve- 
rus of his favourite's treachery, and Caracalla shortly after despatched 
him with his sword. 

Severus afterwards undertook an expedition into Britain, (A. D. 208,) 
where the Romans were in danger of being destroyed, or compelled to 
flee the province. After appointing his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, 
joint successors in the empire, he landed with them in Britain ; and 
leaving Geta in the southern parts of the province, which had continued 
in obedience, he marched, with Caracalla, against the Caledonians. — 
He prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the 
enemy to sue for peace. For the better security of that province, he 
built that famous wall which still goes by his name, extending from 
Solway Frith on the west, to the German ocean on the east. He did 
not long survive his successes here, but died at York, in the sixty-sixth 
year of his age, after an active, though cruel reign, of about eighteen 
years. 

CHAPTER 29. 

CARACALLA AND GETA — ALEXANDER SEVERUS — MAXIMIN — 
PHILIP — DECIUS — GALLUS. 

Caracalla and Geta, (A. D. 211,) being acknowledged emperors 
by the army, began to show a mutual hatred to each other, even before 
their arrival at Rome. But Caracalla, being resolved to govern alone, 

How did he gain the throne ? — In what manner did he govern ? — What is he 
celebrated for ? — What conspiracy was formed against Severus ? — Relate his expe- 
dition into Britain ?— What wall did he build?— Where did he die ?— How long kau 
he reigned ? — Who succeeded ? 



252 HISTORY OF ROME. 

furiously entered Geta's apartment, and followed by ruffians, slew him 
in his mother's arms. The barbarities of this monster exceeded what- 
ever was done by Domitian or Nero. His tyrannies at length excited 
the resentment of Macrinus, the commander of the forces in Mesopo- 
tamia, who employed one Martial, a centurion of the guards, to despatch 
him, sfter a cruel reign of six years. 

The soldiers, after a suspense of two days, fixed upon Macrinus to 
succeed, (A. D. 217,) who took all possible methods to conceal his being 
privy to Caracalla's murder. The Senate confirmed their choice shortly 
after, and permitted him to take his son, Diadumenianus, as a partner 
in the empire. Macrinus was fifty-three years old when he entered 
upon the government of the empire. He was of obscure parentage, 
some say by birth a Moor, who, by the mere rotation of office, being 
made first prefect of the praetorian bands, was now by treason and ac- 
cident called to fill the throne. He, together with his son, Diadume- 
nianus, was assassinated, after a reign of one year and two months. 

The Senate and citizens of Rome being obliged to submit to the ap- 
pointment of the army, Heliogabalus, (A. D. 218,) son of Caracalla, 
ascended the throne at the age of fourteen. His short life was a mix- 
ture of effeminacy, lust, and extravagance. In the small space of four 
years, he married six wives, and divorced them all. He built a senate- 
house for women, of which his mother was made president. To his 
other follies he added cruelty and boundless prodigality. But his sol- 
diers mutinying, as was now usual with them, they dragged him through 
the streets with the most bitter invectives, and having despatched him, 
they threw his body into the Tiber, with heavy weights affixed to it, 
that none might afterwards find or give it burial. This was the igno- 
minious death of Heliogabalus, in the eighteenth year of his age, after 
a detestable reign of four years. 

(A. D. 222.) Alexander Severus, his cousin-german, succeeded 
Heliogabalus, and was declared emperor without opposition. To the 
most rigid justice he added the greatest humanity. He loved the good, 
and was a severe reprover of the lewd and infamous. Such were his 
talents, and such the solidity of his judgment, that, though but sixteen 
years of age, he was considered as having acquired the wisdom of ex- 
perience. About the thirteenth year of his reign, the Upper Germans, 
and other northern nations, passed the Rhine and the Danube with such 
fury that all Italy was thrown into the most extreme consternation.— 
The emperor made what levies he could, and went in person to stem the 
torrent, which he speedily effected". It was in the course of his suc- 
eesses against the enemy that he was cut off by a mutiny among his 
own soldiers, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, after a prosperous 
reign of thirteen years and nine days. 

Maximin, (A. D. 235,) who had been the chief promoter of the se- 
dition against Alexander, was chosen to succeed. He was born of ob- 
scure parentage, being the son of a poor herdsman of Thrace. He had 

What was his end ? — Who next ascended the throne ? — How long did he reign 1 
—What is the character of Heliogabalus ? — How did Alexander govern ? — How 
long did he reign ? 



PHILIP, DECIUS, GALLUS. 253 

enlisted into the Roman army, where he soon became remarkable for 
his great strength and courage. This gigantic man, we are told, was 
eight feet and a half high ; and his strength was so great that he was 
able to draw a carriage which two oxen could not move. He had been 
equally remarkable for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue ; but upon 
coming to the empire, he showed himself one of the greatest monsters 
of cruelty that had ever disgraced power ; fearful of nothing himself, 
he seemed to sport with the terrors of all mankind. 

However, his cruelties did not retard his military operations. He 
overthrew the Germans in several battles, and wasted a great extent of 
their country with fire and sword. In every duty of the camp, he him- 
self took as much pains as the meanest sentinel, showing incredible 
courage and assiduity. This remarkable man was assassinated by the 
army, after a usurpation of about three years, in the sixty-fifth year of 
his age. Pupienus (A. D. 238,) and Balbinus succeeded, and continued 
emperors for some time, but the praetorian soldiers at length slew them 
both, and proclaimed Gordian, the grandson of him who was slain in 
Africa. He was but sixteen years old when he began to reign ; but 
his virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. He was 
killed, after a successful reign of nearly six years, by the order of 
Philip, an Arabian, whom he had appointed to succeed him. 

Philip, having thus murdered his benefactor, was acknowledged 
emperor by the army. He associated his son, a boy of six years old, 
as his partner in the empire. Philip commanded in Mesopotamia, and, 
in order to secure his power, made peace with the Persians, and march- 
ed his army towards Rome. However the army revolting in favour of 
Decius his general, he was murdered by one of his sentinels, after a 
reign of about five years. He died in the forty-fifth year of his reign. 

Decius was universally acknowledged his successor. His activity 
and wisdom seemed in some measure to retard the hastening decline of 
the Roman empire. The Senate deemed him not inferior to Trajan, 
and indeed he appeared to consult the dignity and the benefit of the 
empire, if we except his cruel persecution of the Christians. But the 
disputes between the Pagans and the Christians, within the empire, 
and the irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it 
beyond the power of remedy. He was killed in an ambuscade of the 
enemy, in the fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years. 

Gallus, who had betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to 
get himself declared emperor, (A. D.251). He was the first who 
bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state ; paying a 
tribute to the Goths, whom he ought to have repressed. He was lost 
in debauchery and sensuality. The Pagans were allowed the power 
of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. 

These calamities were succeeded by a pestilence from heaven, which 
widely extended for several years ; and also by a civil war, which 
followed between Gallus and JEmilianus, who, having gained a victory 



How did Maximin conduct himself? — How long did he reign ? — Who succeeded ? 
-By what means did Philip gain the empire ? — How was he killed ? — What age ? 
-Relate the particulars of the reign of Decius. — What was the conduct of Gallus? 
22 



254 HISTORY OF ROME. 

over the Goths, was declared emperor by his conquering army. Both 
Gallus and his son were slain by iEmilianus, in a battle fought in 
Moesia. He died in the forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy 
reign of two years and four months, in which the empire suffered inex- 
pressible calamities. (A. D. 253.) The Senate refused to acknowledge 
the claims of iEmilianus, and he was slain by his own troops, after a 
short reign of three or four months. 



CHAPTER 30. 
VALERIAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 

Valerian was chosen by the army to succeed to the throne. He 
seemed to set about reforming the state with a good and vigorous mind ; 
but reformation was grown almost impracticable. In a war with the 
Persians, their king Sapor took him prisoner, and the indignities and 
cruelties practised upon this unhappy monarch are almost incredible. 
Sapor used him as a footstool for mounting his horse, observing that it 
was the best attitude for a statue to be erected to his memory. After 
a seven years, sufferance of such horrid indignities, the cruel Persians 
commanded the prisoner's eyes to be plucked out, and afterwards caused 
him to be flayed, his skin dressed, dyed red, and exposed as a monu- 
ment of the Persian monarch's triumph. 

When Valerian was taken prisoner, Gallienus, his son, promising to 
revenge the insult, was chosen emperor. (A. D. 259.) But it was soon 
discovered that he sought rather the splendors than the toils of empire, 
and he gave himself up to ease and luxury. At this time no fewer 
than thirty pretenders, who are commonly known by the mame of the 
thirty tyrants, were contending for the crown. After supporting their 
claims for a short time, by force of arms, they returned to their original 
obscurity. Gallienus having been killed by his own soldiers, when 
engaged in the siege of Milan, was succeeded, (A. D. 268,) by Flavius 
Claudius. 

Claudius, was joyfully accepted by all orders of the state. He was 
a man of great valour and conduct, whose reign was chiefly occupied 
in repelling the attacks of the Gothic invaders, who had long continued 
to make irruptions into the empire. After a great victory obtained over 
them, he was seized with a pestilential fever in Pannonia, which termi- 
nated a reign of little more than two years ; to the great regret of his 
subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman empire. 

Aurelian was next chosen by the army on account of his military 
talents, and acknowledged by all the states of the empire. This active 
monarch was of obscure parentage, and had passed through all the 
gradations of military duty. He was of unshaken courage and amaz- 
ing strength. In one engagement he killed forty of the enemy with 



How was Gallus slain? — What date? — Was iEmilianus acknowledged emperor? 
— What was the unhappy fate of Valerian? — Did any pretenders contend with 
Gallienus for the crown? — What are the principal events in the reign of Claudius ? 
— What was remarkable in Aurelian ? 



TACITUS, CARUS, DIOCLETIAN. 255 

his own hand, and at different times above nine hundred. In valour 
and expedition he was compared to Julius Caesar, and only wanted 
mildness and clemency to be his equal. 

Among those who were compelled to submit to his power was the 
famous Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. He subdued her country and 
took her prisoner, and she was reserved to grace his triumph. Sue was 
afterwards allowed such an income as maintained her in almost her 
former splendour. But the emperor's severities were the cause of his 
destruction : his secretary, having been threatened by him for some 
fault, formed a conspiracy against him, and slew him as he was travel- 
ling in Thrace towards Byzantium, in the sixtieth year of his age, after 
a very active reign of almost five years. 

After an interregnum of about eight months, the Senate made choice 
of Tacitus, a man of great merit, but by no means ambitious of the 
honour, being at that time seventy-five years old. His measures were 
wise, his habits temperate, and his disposition amiable. After enjoy- 
ing the empire about six months, he died of a fever, in his march to 
oppose the Persians and Scythians. 

Upon the death of Tacitus, his half-brother took upon himself the 
title of emperor, in Cilicia ; but being defeated by Probus, the army, 
as if by common consent, exclaimed that Probus should be emperor. — 
He had been early distinguished for his discipline and valour, nor were 
his activity and courage less apparent when elected to the empire. 
Every year produced fresh irruptions, which threatened universal deso- 
lation. 

Perhaps, at this time, no abilities, except those of Probus, were ca- 
pable of opposing such united invasions. He was slain by some of 
his soldiers, whom he had offended by employing them in draining a 
fen, after an active reign of six years and four months. He was suc- 
ceeded by Carus. The reign of Carus, and that of his two sons, Ca- 
rinus and Numerian, were short and destitute of interest. Carus was 
killed by lightning in his tent. Numerian was assassinated by his 
father-in-law, Aper, who aspired to the crown, but was defeated by 
Diocletian, who slew the murderer, and ascended the throne with the 
approbation of the army and Senate. 

Diocletian was a person of mean birth ; he received his name from 
the town in which he was born, (A. D. 284.) He owed his exaltation 
to his merit, having passed through all the gradations of office with 
sagacity, courage, and success. In his time the northern hive, as it was 
called, the Scythians, Goths, Sarmatians, Alani, &c, poured down its 
swarms of barbarians upon the southern empire. On account of the 
numerous enemies which Diocletian had to oppose, he made Maximian 
his associate ; and afterward took two other colleagues, whom they 
termed Caesars — Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius. In 303, Diocletian 
began to persecute the Christians with great cruelty. 



What occasioned his death? — How old was he? — Who was next chosen? — 
How long did he reign? — Who succeeded Tacitus? — What was he distinguished 
for ? — How long did Probus reign ? — Who succeeded ? — What happened in the 
.eign of Diocletian? — Whom did he take as partner? — Did he persecute the 

Christians ? 



256 HISTORY OF ROME. 

After gaining many victories over the barbarians, and in the midst 
of his triumphs, Diocletian and Maximian (his partner in the empire,) 
surprised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day — 1st 
May, A. D. 304, and both retiring to private stations. Diocletian's reign 
of twenty years was active and vigorous. His authority, though tinc- 
tured with severity, was supposed to be adapted to the depraved state 
of morals at that time. 

Upon the resignation of the two emperors, the two Caesars, whom 
they had before chosen, were universally acknowledged as their suc- 
cessors. Constantius was virtuous, valiant, and merciful ; Galerius 
was brave, but brutal, incontinent, and cruel. On coming into power 
they readily agreed to divide the empire; Constantine was appointed 
to govern the western parts, and died at York, in Britain, A. D. 306, 
appointing Constantine, his son, as his successor. Galerius was seized 
with a disorder, which baffled the skill of his physicians, and carried 
him off. 

CHAPTER 31. 

CONSTANTINE. 

Constantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, had some competitors 
at first for the throne. Among the rest was Maxentius, who was at 
that time in possession of Rome, and a steady asserter of Paganism. 
It was in Constantine's march against that usurper, Ave are told, that 
he was converted to Christianity, by a very extraordinary appearance. 
One evening, the army being on its march towards Rome, Constantine, 
sensible of the dangers of his expedition, sent up his ejaculations to 
heaven to direct him in the path he should pursue. As the sun was 
declining there suddenly appeared a pillar of light in the heavens, in 
the fashion of a cross, with this inscription — TOTT& NIKA, In this 
overcome. 

An appearance so extraordinary created astonishment, both in the 
emperor and his whole army. The account goes on to say, that the 
emperor was further encouraged by visions the same night ; and that 
the day following, he caused a royal standard, like that which he had 
seen in the heavens, to be carried before him in his wars, as an ensign 
of victory and celestial protection. After this he consulted with the 
principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that 
holy religion. 

Constantine, having thus attached his soldiers to his interest, who 
were mostly of the Christian persuasion, entered Italy with ninety 
thousand foot, and eight thousand horse, and advanced almost to the 
gates of Rome. Maxentius advanced from the city with a large army. 
The engagement was fierce and bloody ; but victory declared in favour 
jf Constantine. Maxentius was drowned in his flight, by the breaking 



Did they resign their government ? — What date ? — Who divided the empire ? — 
Where did Constantine die ? — What date ? — What is told of Constantine the Great's 
conversion? — Did he publicly avow Christianity? — Did Constantine overcome his 
rival for the crown ? 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 257 

down of the bridge as he attempted to cross the Tiber. Constantine, 
on entering the city, caused the cross to be placed at the right of all 
his statues. Edicts were soon after issued, declaring that the Chris- 
tians should be eased of all their grievances, and received into places 
of trust and authority. 

Things continued in this state for some time, Constantine contribut- 
ing to the interests of religion and the revival of learning. But in the 
midst of these assiduities the empire was again disturbed by the pre- 
parations of Maximin, who governed in the east, and who seemed desi- 
rous to resume his power. A general engagement ensued between him 
and Licinius (whom Constantine had associated with him in the gov- 
ernment), in which Maximin suffered a total defeat. He was preparing 
however another army, when his death prevented the conflict. As he 
died by a very extraordinary kind of madness, the Christians ascribed 
it to the judgment of heaven. But this was an age in which false 
opinions and false miracles made up the bulk of every history. 

Constantine and Licinius thus remaining undisputed possessors of 
the empire, a rupture soon occurred between them, and both sides exert- 
ed their power to gain the ascendency ; and at the head of very formida- 
ble armies came to an engagement near Cybalis, in Pannonia. Con- 
stantine, previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian bishops, 
begged the assistance of heaven ; while, Licinius, with equal zeal, 
called upon the Pagan priests to intercede with the gods in their favour. 
Constantine was victorious ; and in a second engagement Licinius was 
entirely defeated, and rendered himself up to the victor, who, for his 
rebellion, some time afterwards, put him to death. 

Constantine, thus becoming sole monarch, resolved to establish 
Christianity on a sure basis. He commanded, that in all the provinces 
of the empire, the orders of the bishops should be implicitly obeyed. 
He called, also, a general council at Nice, to repress the heresies that 
had already crept into the church. But, though he restored tranquillity 
to his dominions, he could not ward off calamities at home. Histori- 
ans are much at variance as to the motives which induced him to put 
his wife Fausta, and his son Crispus, to death. The most plausible 
account is, that Fausta, the empress, — a woman of great beauty, but 
of extravagant desires, had long, though secretly loved Crispus, Con- 
stantine's son by a former wife. She attempted in vain to inspire this 
youth with a mutual passion. This produced an explanation, which 
proved fatal to both. Constantine, fired at once with jealousy and rage, 
condemned both to death. 

Constantine now found leisure to execute his design of removing 
the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, a more central part 
of the empire, which he enlarged, and named from himself Constanti- 
nople, (A. D. 330). The city he beautified with magnificent edifices, 
and dedicated it to the God of Martyrs ; and in two years after repaired 
thither with his whole court. 



What is told of Maximin? — What was told of his death ? — Did Constantine con- 
tend with Licinius ? — What domestic troubles did Constantine encounter? — Whither 
did he remove the seat of government? 

22* 



258 HISTORY OF ROME. 

This removal produced no immediate change in the government of 
the empire. The inhabitants of Rome, though reluctant, submitted to 
the change, nor was there for two or three years any disturbance in the 
state ; until at length the Goths, finding that the Romans had with- 
drawn all their garrisons along the Danube, renewed their inroads, and 
ravaged the country with unheard-of cruelty. Constantine, however, 
soon repressed their incursions. 

A great error ascribed to Constantine, is the dividing the empire 
among his sons. Constantine, the eldest, commanded in Gaul, and the 
western provinces: Constantius, the second, governed Africa and Illy- 
ricum: and Constans, the youngest, ruled in Italy. This division of 
the empire further contributed to its downfall : for the united strength 
of the state being no longer brought to repress invasions, the barba- 
rians, though often defeated, conquered at last. When Constantine 
was above sixty years old, and had reigned above thirty, he found his 
health decline. His disorder, which was an ague, increasing, he went 
to Nicomedia, where, finding himself without hopes of a recovery, he 
caused himself to be baptized. He soon after received the sacrament 
and expired. 

CHAPTER 32. 
SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE— JULIAN. 

The character of Constantine has been as extravagantly lauded by 
his friends as it has been unjustly depreciated by his enemies; but in 
truth his conduct varied with his circumstances, and the hero, whom 
adversity could not subdue, degenerated into a cruel and dissolute tyrant, 
under the influence of uninterrupted prosperity. The private assassi- 
nation of his son Crispus, and the murder of his nephew, and of a 
great number of the most respectable imperial officers, affix an indelible 
stain on the character of Constantine, which is aggravated by the know- 
ledge, that in the midst of these cruel executions, the imperial court 
was the theatre of the most degrading licentiousness and profligate de- 
bauchery. Christian writers have been too eager to extenuate the vices 
and palliate the crimes of the first Christian emperor; as if the cha- 
racter of a great religious revolution was to be estimated by the de- 
merits of "the instrument by which it was effected ; but they should re- 
member that God has, in many instances, made even the vices of men 
subservient to the great designs of his moral government. 

On the death of Constantine, his three sons, Constantine, Constan- 
tius, and Constans, succeeded to the empire. Though they had been 
carefully educated, they resembled each other as much in their vices as 
their names. They planned a conspiracy for the judicial murder of 
their nearest relation ; and a forged scroll, purporting to be the will of 
the late emperor, was produced by the Bishop of Nicomedia, who had 



What is said of the Goths at this time ? — Were they successful? — How did Con- 
stantine divide the kingdom ? — How long did he reign ? — How old was he at his 
death? — What character do historians give to Constantine? — What course did his 
sons pursue on coming to the throne ? 



SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE. -259 

been bribed for the purpose, in which Constantine was made to declare 
that he had been poisoned by his brothers, and represented as suppli- 
cating his children for vengeance. Under this pretext the whole of the 
Flavian family was menaced with destruction, and it was with diffi- 
culty that Gallus and Julian, the youngest children of Julius Constan- 
tius, were saved from the hands of the assassins. 

This was followed by a partition of the empire among the three 
brothers. Constantine, the elder, received titular supremacy, and the 
possession of the capital ; Thrace, and the Asiatic provinces, were as- 
signed to Constantius ; while Constans was acknowledged master of 
Italy, Africa, and Illyricum. 

Constantius was soon involved in a long and dangerous war for the 
defence of his new dominions against Sapor, king of Persia. After a 
series of campaigns, in which the provinces were greatly devastated, 
the war was concluded by treaty, after it had lasted twelve years. — 
Three years had scarcely elapsed since the partition of the empire, when 
Constantine fell in a civil war with his brother Constans, (A. D. 350,) 
whose subsequent administration of ten years completely alienated the 
affections of the soldiers and the people. The general discontent in- 
duced Magnentius, a soldier of fortune, to raise the standard of revoltin 
Gaul, and Constans, before he had time to escape, was taken and slain. 
Immediately after, the Illyrian regions saluted their general Vetranio 
emperor, and his rebellion was sanctioned by the princess Constantia. 
However, Constantius, on his return from Syria, easily seduced the 
simple Vetranio into a treaty, and reduced him to a private station. 
War was then declared against Magnentius, who received a decisive 
overthrow at Mursa, in Pannonia, and soon after he slew himself in 
despair. 

Gallus, who, with his brother Julian, had escaped the ruin of the 
Flavian family, had been released from prison by Constantius, associ- 
ated in the government with the title of Cassar, and united in marriage 
to the princess Constantia. But the latter circumstance proved his 
ruin : stimulated by his wife, an ambitious and depraved woman, he 
provoked the jealousy of Constantius by outraging his authority, and 
after a mock examination, he was put to death like the meanest cri- 
minal. 

Besides the reigning emperor, Julian was now the only surviving 
member of the Flavian family, and he owed his safety to the generous 
interference of the empress Eusebia. Educated in the philosophical 
schools in Athens, he had been induced to reject the pure doctrines of 
Christianity for the delusive dreams of Pagan philosophy, and thus 
earned the title of the Apostate. He was raised to the dangerous ele- 
vation his brother had enjoyed, and invested with the dignity of a 
Caesar. 

He was sent to defend the province of Gaul, then devastated by the 
German barbarians, and showed by his conduct that the cultivation of 

How was the empire divided? — What country had each? — What struggles dis- 
turbed the empire ? — Relate what happened to Gallus. — Who was the cause of it 
— - Who was Julian ? — What title did he obtain ? 



260 HISTORY OF ROME. 

polite literature is not incompatible with the wisdom of a statesman 
the skill of a general, or the courage of a hero. His soldiers had re- 
solved to proclaim him emperor ; and a civil war was on the point of 
commencing, when it was prevented by the death of Constantius, who, 
(A. D. 361,) notwithstanding his rebellion, named Julian as his suc- 
cessor. 

The news of Julian's accession was hailed by the philosophers and 
the adherents to the old heathen system with extravagant pleasure, but 
it filled the hearts of the Christians with suspicion and dismay. The 
principles of enlightened toleration formed no part of his philosophy ; 
rewards were proffered to all who would apostatize to the imperial creed, 
and penal disqualifications imposed on those who adhered to the pure 
religion of the gospel. It is said, indeed, that Julian did not persecute 
the Christians, and it is true that he made no martyrs ; but it were idle 
to deny that penal and disqualifying laws are as much instruments of 
persecution as the torture of the rack, or the axe of the executioner. 
The condition of the Jews, so directly in accordance with the prophecy 
of Christ, was a standing proof of Christianity, too decisive to escape 
the notice of its crafty adversary. To remove its effects, Julian re- 
solved to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem ; but the workmen were mi- 
raculously dispersed, and the attempt was not repeated. 

Julian led a powerful army against the Persians, and for some time 
enjoyed uninterrupted success. But at length he was mortally wounded 
in a skirmish with the Persian troops. 

Jovian, one of the imperial domestics, was chosen by the army, and 
the first act of his reign was to conclude a dishonourable peace with 
Sapor. He then made a public profession of the Christian faith, and 
issued an edict for the establishment of universal toleration ; but on 
his way to Constantinople, he unfortunately was suffocated by the me- 
phitic vapours of a room freshly plastered, after a short reign of eight 
months. 

CHAPTER 33. 

VALENTINIAN — VALENS — GRATIAN — THEODOSIUS. 

After an interregnum of ten days, Valentinian, the son of a Panno- 
nian nobleman, was elected to fill the vacant throne. He shared his 
authority with his brother Valens, to whom he entrusted Constantinople 
and the eastern provinces ; the western dominions he reserved for him- 
self, and made Milan the seat of his government. Thus were the Ro- 
man territories divided into the Eastern and Western empires. (A. D. 
364.) 

The empire of Valens was disturbed by the revolt of Procopius, 
whose only merit was his relationship to the emperor Julian ; and after 
his defeat by the bitter persecution of the Catholic Christians, whom 

Whom did Constantine name as his successor ? — How did Julian behave towards 
the Christians ?— Did he succeed in building the temple at Jerusalem ?— How did 
Julian come by his death? — What are the particular events of Jovian's reign ?— 
Who next enjoyed the empire ?— How was it divided ?— What was the state of each 
empire ? 



GRATIAN, THEODOSIUS. 261 

Valens, a zealous professor of the Arian heresy, determined to destroy. 
Valentinian, on the contrary, established perfect toleration in his do- 
minions, and studiously discouraged all persecution on account of re- 
ligious opinions. 

But the barbarous nations on the northern frontiers of the empire 
began now to threaten the calamities that they subsequently inflicted. 
The Gothic and Sarmatic nations could no longer be confined by the 
line of the Danube ; a formidable coalition of the German tribes called 
the Allemanni, menaced Gaul ; and Southern Britain was invaded by 
the Picts and Scots. To the latter province the emperor sent Theodo- 
sius, the bravest and most popular of the imperial generals ; while he 
himself hasted to meet the barbarians of the Rhine and Upper Danube. 
In Britain, Theodosius not only repelled the invaders, but extended the 
boundaries of the Roman province. Nor was the emperor's success 
less decided, and he drove his enemies to sue for peace. When the 
ambassadors came into the presence of Valentinian, he upbraided them 
in the most bitter terms, and worked himself into such a convulsion of 
passion, that he burst a blood-vessel, and expired in a few moments in 
the arms of his attendants. 

Gratian succeeded his father ; but was forced to associate with 
himself in the empire his brother Valentinian II., as yet an infant. 
Scarcely had he assumed the government, when he received pressing 
solicitations from his uncle Valens to aid in the defence of the eastern 
empire which the insurrection of the Goths menaced with destruction. 
These Goths, being driven from their native soil by the Huns, had sup- 
plicated the emperor Valens to locate them in some part of his domin- 
ions. He readily assigned to them the waste lands of Thrace, but 
neglecting to provide for their immediate support, hunger drove them 
to rebellion, and they now seemed on the point of destroying the em- 
pire that had afforded them protection. 

Gratian readily prepared to aid his uncle; but was delayed by a new 
war with the Allemanni till Valens had been forced to an engagement 
near Adrianople, in which he perished with the greater part of his army. 
When Gratian received the fatal news, he was on his march ; but it 
was too late to save his uncle. Being too sensible of the dangers that 
threatened the western empire, to distract himself with the affairs of 
the eastern, he chose as his colleague, Theodosius, the son of the con- 
queror of Britain, and invested him with the imperial purple. Theo- 
dosius soon restored the sinking fortunes of the eastern empire, and 
compelled the Goths to submit. 

Hitherto the conduct of Gratian had merited and obtained the ap- 
plause of his subjects; but from a variety of causes, his popularity 
began rapidly to decline. This induced Maximus, who commanded 
in Britain, to make an attempt for empire, and passing over to Gaul, he 
was joined by the legions quartered in that country. Gratian, after 

What inroads were now made by the barbarians ? — Did Valentinian suppress the 
insurrection ?— What was the cause of his death ?— Who succeeded ?— What hap- 
pened in the empire of Valens ?— What was the fate of Valens ?— Whom did Gra- 
tian appoint to his uncle's kingdom ? 



-262 HISTORY OF ROME. 

vainly endeavouring to revive the loyalty of his soldiers, fled from 
Paris, where he resided ; but he was treacherously betrayed at Lyons 
to his pursuers, and instantly murdered. 

Theodosius thought it prudent to enter into an alliance with Maxi- 
mus, stipulating that Italy should be secured to Valentinian II., then 
at Milan. But the perfidious usurper soon after led an army across the 
Alps, and Valentinian fled with his mother Justinian, to Thedosius for 
safety. Theodosius prepared an army to chastise the perfidy of Maxi- 
mus. The success of the war was equal to its justness. Maximus 
was slain ; and Valentinian was restored ; but he was assassinated 
soon after by Arbogastes, one of his generals, who procured the 
elevation of the rhetorician Eugenius to the throne of the western 
empire. 

Theodosius once more proceeded to Italy, as the punisher of usurpa- 
tion ; on this occasion he found his enemies waiting his approach 
beyond the Alps, and so strongly posted that, but for the disaffection of 
one of the hostile bodies, he must have been irretrievably ruined. In 
the battle that ensued the two usurpers were slain, and the eastern and 
western empires were once more united under one head. But the health 
of the emperor, already weakened by military toils, was quite unable 
to sustain the festivities that celebrated his triumphs. He died, uni- 
versally lamented by all classes of his subjects, after a glorious reign 
of sixteen years. 

CHAPTER 34. 

THE BARBAROUS NATIONS WHO SUBVERTED THE ROMAN 
EMPIRE — FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 

The Barbarous Nations that contributed to the overthrow of the 
Roman Empire, were the Vandals and Alans, the Goths, the Huns, the 
Jillemanni and the Suevic Tribes, the Franks, the Angles and Saxons, 
the Normans, the Bulgarians and Avars, the Saracens or Arabs, and the 
Turks. 

During the later reign of the Caesars, the ancient military glory of the 
Romans disappeared, and their armies were recruited from among the 
distant provinces, and when those mercenary tribes returned home, 
they made known to their countrymen the riches and the weakness of 
the empire. It was about the beginning of the fifth century that the 
Vandals, the Suevi and the Alans poured their hordes into the empire. 
The Franks, Saxons, Allemanni, &c, laid waste the countries about 
the Rhine, and the Persians made dreadful incursions on the provinces 
of the east. 



Relate Gratian's unhappy death. — Where was he killed ? — Did the usurper long 
enjoy his power ?— What was the end of Valentinian II. ?— Who succeeded ?— With 
what success did Theodosius march against the usurpers ? — How long did he reign ? 
— Name the barbarous nations that contributed to the overthrow of the Roman 
empire. — What discovered the riches of the Romans to the barbarians ? 



THE BARBAROUS NATIONS. 263 

The Vandals issued from Scandinavia (now Sweden) and occupied 
the northern part of Germany, between the Elbe and the Vistula, and 
formed a part of the great Suevic nation. They extended themselves 
towards the lower Danube, and came in contact with the Jllans, a Scy- 
thian race from the chain of Mount Caucasus, that had previously made 
incursions into southern Asia. Another portion or tribe of these Van- 
dals overran Gaul ; and from thence entered Spain ; and one of the 
provinces, Vandalusia (now Andalusia) retains the memory of their 
conquests. From Spain they passed, (A. D. 429,) into Africa, under 
the command of king Genseric and his successors. Their dominion 
lasted for a century, when they were totally subdued, and their name 
obliterated from Africa, by Belisarius, the general of the eastern em- 
peror, Justinian. 

The Goths are said to have been originally from Scandinavia ; but 
the first historical accounts introduce them north of the lower Danube, 
between the Vistula and the Don. Those eastward of the Boristhenes 
or Dnieper, were termed Ostrogoths ; and those to the west of the Bo- 
risthenes were named Visigoths. Both were the most civilized of the 
barbarous tribes, and the first that embraced Christianity. After being 
provoked by the emperors, they twice ravaged Italy, and plundered 
Rome, and they erected new states in Gaul and Spain, which attained 
considerable distinction. The Thuringians, who appear to have been 
a branch of the Goths, established a kingdom in the centre of Ger- 
many. 

The Huns appear, from the accounts of the ancient historians, to have 
belonged to the race of the Mongolian Tartars. On their entering Eu- 
rope, they drove before them the Goths, and other nations, down upon 
Italy. In the year 391, they entered Mcesia and Thrace. Attila, the 
leader of the Huns, who, for his cruelty, was called " the scourge of 
God" was defeated by iEtius and Theodoric, the king of the Visigoths. 
They lost their chief in Italy, and with his death their power terminated. 
The nation was broken by their petty chiefs into small septs, and the 
conquests of Charlemagne, about the year 800, A. D., blotted the name 
of the Huns from the list of nations. 

The Allemanni and the Suevic tribes — The Allemanni were a con- 
federacy of several tribes in northern Germany ; they possessed them- 
selves of those parts which border on the Rhine, and from thence Ger- 
many is at present called Allemagne, 

The Burgundians originally inhabited the banks of the Vistula (now 
Prussia.) In 245, they were driven by the Gepidce beyond the Kibe. 
About the year 275, they approached the Rhine, which they crossed, 
and took numerous towns, which they were soon, by the emperor Pro- 

__ i 

Mention the origin and incursions of the Vandals. — Of the Goths. — What is the 
history of the Huns ? — Their origin ? — Who conquered them ? — Who were the 
Allemanni ?— What country did they possess ?— What country did the Burgundians 



264 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



bus, compelled to yield. They some time afterwards overran Alsace, 
and advanced to Geneva. The seat of their government was next re- 
moved to Vienne, in Dauphine, and lastly to Burgundy ; since which 
it has formed a province of France. 

The Suevic tribes occupied the space between the Vistula and the 
Elbe ; and in language and race appear to be closely connected with the 
Scandinavians. One portion of them settled in the southwestern part 
of Germany, and gave the name Swabia to that duchy. They accom- 
panied the Vandals into Spain, and received the province of Galicia for 
their share. 

Two Scandinavian tribes, the Gepid^e and the Heruli, forced the 
Burgundians to quit their habitations. The Heruli, after having given 
a king to Italy, were soon lost among the other tribes. 

The Lombards, more properly Longobardi, or the long-bearded-na- 
tion, were the last of the Suevic tribes that emigrated. They entered 
Italy after the destruction of the Gothic kingdom, and erected a state 
in 563, called Lombardy, in the northern part of that country, which 
lasted till 774, when it fell under tbe dominion of Charlemagne. 

The Franks, or Freemen, had at one time the whole country, from 
the Rhine to the Elbe, under their control. In the third and fourth 
centuries they possessed themselves of Gaul, to which they gave the 
name of France. 

The Angles and Saxons inhabited the provinces about Holstein, and 
were as conspicuous for their expeditions by sea, as their incursions by 
land. The Britons, to protect themselves against the Picts and Scots, 
entreated the aid of these pirates. They landed in Kent, about A. D. 
449. But they soon became masters of the country which they came 
to protect. They founded the seven kingdoms called the Heptarchy, 
and changed its name to Angle-land, since corrupted to England. 

The Normans, or North-men, did not appear till after the former 
tribes had nearly settled themselves in their new habitations. They 
came from Norway and Denmark, and their piratical excursions, not 
only on the coasts of the Atlantic, but in the Mediterranean, filled I^u- 
rope with dismay. They made frequent settlements on the north of 
Fr?nce, and wrested Normandy from the French monarchs. Their de- 
scendants, under the guidance of William the Conqueror, made them- 
selves masters of England. 

The BulcxArians and Avars. The Bulgarians were probably from 
Southern Tartary. They appeared on the banks of the Volga towards 
the middle of the seventh century. In their farther progress a part of 
them penetrated to Benevento in Italy, where their descendants may 
be distinguished to this day. A still larger portion formed the province 
of Bulgaria, in the Greek empire. The Avars came to the same 



Repeat the history of the Suevi and Scandinavians. — What is told of the Lorn- 
bards! — What of the Franks? — What is the history of the Angles and Saxu/is t — 
Who were the Normans? — The Bulgarians and the Avars? 



BOUNDARIES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 265 

country as the Bulgarians, and soon after their appearance, merged in 
that people. 

The Saracens, or Arabs, and the Turks. — In the early part of the 
seventh century, Mahomet, a native of Mecca, in Arabia, proclaimed 
himself an inspired Apostle, and in a few ran, he 1" came the leader 
of a host of converts. The natives of Africa were called Saracens 
(which signifies Easterns). Their habits are predatory, and they have 
been always formidable to tin ir neighbours, but when united under a 
popular leader their prowess wai invincible, especially whentlv 
empire and Persian kingdom were in the lowest state of degradation. 
Within a century from the flight of Mahomet, the Saracens had wrested 
from the Byzantine EmperOTI of Constantinople, their fairest Asiatic 
provinces. tn< v subjugated Persia, made themselTee masters of Egypt 
and North Africa, and founded a kingdom to Spain. But success 
proved the rain of the empire. The different tribes divided and 
warred against each other, and thus made way fur snother powerful 
people to exalt t: open th< ir ruins, about the ninth and tenth 

centuries, — these were the Turks. 

lite Tusks were a Tartaric horde, from the eastern borders of the 
Caspian, who were first employed as meroensrii mm, around 

his throne at Bagdad, and who finally became no mpire. 

CHAPTER 3ft. 

BOUNDARIES OF Till: ROMAN EMPIHK. 

Tin: boondariee of the Roman Empire, at test < atent, were 

in Europe, — the Rhine and the Danube; in Asia — the Euphrates and 
Syrian desert j and in Africa, — the sandy r , In Europe, besides 

Italy, the Romans possess 

PunroHU - - - - Hungary* 

- Bulgaria and St rvia, 

[LLTBICUH Croatia. 



HlSPAJOA S 

l.i >i ia.m.v - - - - Portugal* 

C Minorca, 



1 n - 1 I 

LKAi 



< Ma, 

C and I 

Gallia I 

HELVETIA ... Switzerland. 

Belgium - - - - Belgium, 

\ imu i.k i a - - - - Swabia, 

RHOBTIA - - - - The T;/r<u. 

Noeicusj - - - - - Austria. 



Tim '. 

I M.V. 

Epuu 

i 

And the Greek Islands. 
All the inlands in the Mediterrane- 
an, and part of Britain. 

In Asia, the empire extended on r Asis Minor, Syria, Phoenicia; and 
Pah -tine. — In the reign of Trajan, Armenia and Mesopotamia 
reduced to provinces, but they were abandoned by his successor, Adrian. 



Who was Ihfl distinguished leader of the Saracens t — What conquests did they 

- What date! — Who were the Turks! — What empire did they obtain ? 

What were the possessions of the Romans in Europe '— What was their empire in 

29 



266 HISIORY OF ROME. 

The African Provinces were — 



Cyrenaica - - - - Tripoli. 

C The Jllserine 
Africa proper £ territor *. 



Egypt 
Numidia - 
Mauritania 



- - - Barbary, 

Fez and Morocco 



The most remarkable states not subject to the Romans were the 
northern Germanic tribes, — the Scythian barbarians (now the Russian 
Empire). In Asia the Parthian Empire and the Arabic tribes. They 
had heard of Taprobana (Ceylon), of the Chersonesus aurea (Malacca), 
and of the still more remote region inhabited by the Seres (Chinese). 



What were the most remarkable states not subject to the Romans ? 



THE END. 



APALACHIAN SERIES 

OF 

SOUTHERN SCHOOL BOOKS. 



LINDSAY AND BLAKISTON, 

PHILADELPHIA, 

AND 

BENJAMIN F. GRIFFIN, 

MACON, GA., 

PUBLISH THE FOLLOWING HIGHLY VALUABLE 
SOUTHERN SCHOOL BOOKS. 

Apalachian Primer, consisting of Progressive Lessons, in 
Words of one and two Syllables.— By Mrs. S. L. Griffin. 

Apalachian Reader, No. 1, consisting of Easy Lessons in 
Reading, and Exercises in Spelling. — By Mrs. S. L. Griffin. 

Apalachian Reader, No. 2, embracing Easy Lessons in Read- 
ing, with Questions, and Exercises in Spelling. — By Mrs. S. L. 
Griffin. 

Apalachian Reader, No. 3, containing appropriate Lessons in 
Enunciation, Pause, Inflection, Emphasis, and Reading, Spelling 
Exercises, with Definitions and Pronunciation, <fcc. — By Mrs. S. 
L. Griffin. 

Apalachian Reader, No. 4, embracing the Principles of 
Rhetoric, and appropriate Reading Lessons, carefully selected 
and arranged. — By Mrs. S. L. Griffin. 

A History of the United States, from the discovery of 
America to the present time, including the Early History of 
Louisiana and Texas. — By B. F. Griffin. 

The Southern Orator, consisting of Elements of Elocution, 
and Selections, suitable for Declamation and Recitation, from 
eminent Southern Orators and Writers. — By B. F. Griffin. 



" It is high time that we had thrown off our inglorious dependence 
upon others for School Books— especially that class of them destined to 
wield so radical an influence over moral and political sentiments." — Kcv. 
O. F. Pierce. 

"Southern people ought to support Southern manufactures, or oease 
their complaints of dependence." — Rev. G. F. Pierce. 

" One of our wants at the South has heen the lack of good Southern 
School Books, inculcating sound views on the question of slavery, and or- 
thodox and elevated religious sentiment. This want has heen supplied by 
the recent publication of a series of Southern School Books." — Southern 
Christian Advocate. 



A NEW AND IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL WORK. 



WILLIMENT'S CATECHISM OF FAMILIAR THINGS: 

THEIR HISTORY, AND THE EVENTS "WHICH LED TO THEIR 

DISCOVERY; WITH A SHORT EXPLANATION OF 

SOME OP THE PRINCIPAL 

NATURAL PHENOMENA. 

FOR THE USE OP SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 

BY EMILY ELIZABETH WILLEMENT. 

CAREFULLY REVISED BY AN AMERICAN TEACHER. 



Extract from the Preface. 
"I wish especially to direct the attention of parents and teachers to the ne- 
cessity of possessing a work calculated to save them much fatigue in the respon- 
sible office of education. The subjects contained in it may seem in themselves 
unimportant or insignificant. But do not children often ask a variety of ques- 
tions on those very subjects at times when the parent or teacher is not at leisure 
to answer them properly T — questions on the most simple subjects, asked in 
such a manner as to puzzle the cleverest. Besides, is there one thing used by 
us in the daily business of life without its historical interest? Decidedly not; 
although, from their commonness, many are passed by as unimportant. I con- 
sider that to trace them to their source is not only amusing, but highly instruc- 
tive ; for there is scarcely one which is not connected with some epoch import- 
ant in the history of the world." 

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 

This very neat little book contains a mass of valuable information, condensed 
In the form of questions and answers, relating to familiar things, about which 
children, and even grown persons, need to be instructed — the history of 
familiar things and the events which led to their discovery, with explanations 
of natural phenomena, &c. &c. For example : there are chapters explanatory 
of Dew, Rain, Atmosphere, Lightning, Twilight, Aurora, &c. <kc. : of the pro- 
ductions of the earth, such as Corn, Barley, Oats, Potatoes, <kc. ; of manufac- 
tures, as Calico, Cloth, Baize, Linen, Stockings, Shoes, Glass, Mirrors, Specta- 
cles, Mariners' Compass, Magnetic Telegraph, <kc. <kc. : of Metals, Precious 
Stones, Architecture, and kindred arts : Music, Painting, and the Arts and Sci- 
ences generally. It is just such a book as every parent should have to instruct 
his child from, and as could be used in a school with great advantage and plea- 
sure to the pupils. — Traveller. 

This volume comprises a large amount of information in regard to everything 
that man eats, drinks, breathes, wears, uses for building, for ornament or luxury. 
It is a kind of encyclopedia, defining the name, and often the mode of procuring 
or manufacturing, almost every thing used in common life ; and can readily be 
consulted.— Christian Mirror. 

The varied phenomena of earth and air, fire and water, with most of the im- 
portant elements in uature and art, that constitute the globe a fitting habitation 
for our race, are set forth in this volume, in a condensed, pleasant, and instruc- 
tive form. — Episcopal Recorder. 

A novel and very useful peculiarity of this catechistic compendium is the in- 
sertion of the meaning of the most difficult words or terms occurring in each 
answer at the end of it. The work, without these derivative explanations, is 
copious, accurate, explicit, and well calculated to blend in the youthful mind 
entertainment which shall be impressive, with instruction which shall be per- 
manent.— Hood's Magazine. 



willement's catechism of familiar things. 

Opinions of the Press. 

This is one of the most valuable encyclopaedias for the use of children, we 
have ever seen. It contains many subjects of great importance to the rising 
generation, and is written in a plain style, divested as far as possible of all tech- 
nicalities, treating, in a small space, of the various phenomena of nature, the 
general history of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, and an outline 
of the arts and sciences. Parents, get it for your children, and by so doing add 
to their knowledge, and save yourselves considerable trouble.— Penn. Telegraph. 

We can very highly recommend this book. It contains a large amount of 
information that immediately concerns every human being. For family reading 
it is especially attractive, and will well repay perusal. It treats of the various 
phenomena of nature, the leading chameteristics and general history of the ob- 
jects of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and the fundamental 
truths of the arts and sciences. The language of the writer is simple and per- 
spicuous, and will therefore interest juvenile readers. — City Item. 

This is a work of very deep interest, and of great value. The mineral, the 
animal, and the vegetable kingdoms, all pass under review, and are treated in 
a manner to develop and impress the great facts, connected with each, on the 
mind of the student. The arts and sciences also come in for a place, and are 
treated in a similar manner. Children, youth, and families, as a whole, may 
gather much instruction by this book, on the important topics alluded to.— 
Christian Chronicle. 

We have here a great mass of information condensed within very narrow 
limits, touching almost every thing that we have to do with in common life. 
There is hardly any thing connected with our food or raiment, our dwellings, 
our occupations, or our amusements, but what is here very intelligently and 
agreeably discoursed upon, even to the comprehension of a child. If children 
study it well, there is a great chance that they will be wiser in some things 
than their parents.— Puritan Recorder. 

The work is just such an one as we have long thought would be very accept- 
able to the public, and especially to school teachers. It or something as near 
like it as possible should be in every school in the land.— Courier. 

It is designed for use in schools and families, and furnishes a most excellent 
and agreeable method of imparting useful knowledge on all familiar subjects, 
their history, their character, &c. — Bulletin. 

This little work well deserves extensive circulation; for truly it contains 
"muitum in parvo" of such information as is most likely to arrest the attention 
of youthful minds. The style is easy and pleasant, all technical phrases care- 
fully omitted, and the book well adapted to its purpose of providing " an impor- 
tant auxiliary in the dissemination of useful and entertaining knowledge." — 
Sartain's Magazine. 

This book presents a mass of information, in a condenseJ form, on all kinds 
of things which enter into the every-day concerns of life ; the air we breathe, 
the food we eat, the raiment we are clothed with, the habitations we dwell in, 
the constitution of our mortal frame, arts, commerce and manufactures, are 
cleverly t)«eated of by Question and Answer, and form a mine of useful informa- 
tion. We recommend it to the attention of parents and tutors. — Essex Standard. 

A vast quantity of information is so admirably condensed, and so much really 
useful knowledge is conveyed in so pleasing and intelligible a style, that we can 
honestly award praise. We congratulate Mrs. Willement upon having success- 
fully accomplished her task, and heartily recommend her meritorious and un- 
pretending work.— Norfolk Chronicle. 

A useful contribution to the cause of Learning made easy.— Athenaum. 

A compact and well-printed edition of a most useful book for children ; and 
Indeed, a book of reference for all.— J err old's Weekly Newspaper. 

We confidently recommend it to all who are intrusted with the education of 
children.— Ipswich Express. 



LINDSAY & BLAKISTON 

PUBLISH 

MY LITTLE GEOGRAPHY, 

FOR 

PRIMARY SCHOOLS ANDFOR BEGINNERS. 

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
EDITED BY MRS. L. O. TUTHILL. 



REO OMMEND ATIONS. 
From Mrs. E. W Phelps, Principal of the Female Seminary, Shepherdstown, Jefferson County, Ta. 
Messrs. Lindsay <$■ Blakiston: — "My Little Geography" is the favourite volume of my younger pu 
pils, who have been charmed with the chapters they have studied, and delighted at finding they could 
commit the sprightly little verses to memory. Such an elementary treatise was quite a deside- 
ratum, and I am pleased that the idea suggested itself to a person capable of carrying it out, m a 
ityle so peculiarly adapted to instruct and interest the young. 

Very respect fully yours, 

E. W. PHELPS. 



From J. E. Love.ll, Principal of the Lancasterian School, New Haven, Conn. 
I have examined a little work, by Mrs. L. C. Tuthill, entitled "My Little Geography." It is by no 
means an easy task to write well for young children, but this performance is, I think, highly success- 
ful. Its language is simple and chaste ; its sentences concise, and its topics so treated that the 
youngest pupil will easily understand them. Several books for beginners in Geography— excellent in 
most respects— have been published within a few years ; but they are, without an exception, so fai 
as my knowledge extends, too comprehensive, and above the capacities of those for whose particular use 
they were intended. Mrs. Tuthill's little work maybe used as introductory to either of them, with 
great advantage ; it will do its own part well, and open the way for the better accomplishment of 
that which belongs to its successors. I hope it may have an extensive circulation. 

J. £. LOVELL. 

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
This is the title of a captivating little book for children, by which they are led, almost insensibly, into 
a knowledge of geographical terms.— Commercial Advertiser. 



Than this unpretending little work we have never seen a more useful or appropriate school-book, 
or one more admirably calculated for beginners in geography; we can recommend it, without 
fear of responsibility, to our seminaries, as well deserving a trial. — Southern Patr.ot. 



We welcome, with particular pleasure, this little work ; the author has succeeded admiraoly in pro- 
ducing a book which must prove a valuable auxiliary to parents and teachers, as well as a delight- 
ful and instructive companion for children. — Saturday Courier. 



This is an attractive, we must add, entertaining book ; as a first Geography for children, it is ad- 
mirably suited to their capacities, and its embellishments cannot fail to interest them. — Christian 
Observer. 



This is a most admirable wcrk for young beginners in Geography ; it should be introduced into fami- 
lies and sckools.— Intelligence nd Journal 



THE CURIOSITIES OF THE MICROSCOPE ; 

OR, 

ILLUSTRATIONS OF MINUTE PARTS OF CREATION. 

WITH 

BY THE REV. JOSEPH H. WYTHES, M.D. 

AUTHOR OP "THE MICROSCOPIST," ETC., ETC. 

"Every grain of sand is an immensity— every leaf a world."— Lavateb. 
A neat 16mo. volume. Cloth, gilt, $1 00. 



" This is a heautiful little hook — heautiful in its printing, its colored plates, and 
its whole getting up, and is well adapted to instruct and amuse those for whom it is 
intended. There are twelve plates, containing numerous figures, drawn with much 
care, even to minute details. The spirit of the work is excellent, and we wish it in 
the hands of all the children of the land."— Sillimarts Journal. 

"It communicates substantial knowledge in the most entertaining way, and opens 
to the young intellect the whole subject of natural philosophy. The colored en- 
gravings greatly illustrate these instructions. We have seen no book written for 
young people that we can more cordially recommend." — Christian Advocate and 
Journal. 

"The revelations of the microscope are truly astonishing; and the effort to unveil 
the minute parts of creation visible to youthful eyes by its amazing power, is worthy 
of praise. The style of this volume is adapted to the class for which it is prepared' 
and the numerous illustrations, beautifully colored, not only add to its beauty, but 
also to its usefulness." — Recorder. 

" The style of the book is simple, yet comprehensive ; and there are few men and 
women who will not, as well as the young, find pleasure and instruction in its pages. 
The colored plates, showing the appearance of a variety of things, animate and in- 
animate, as they appear when subjected to the microscope, are well executed, and 
form not the least attractive feature in the volume."— Home Gazette. 

" For children who have any germs of a taste for scientific investigations, this little 
book would be highly attractive, and would encourage in all whom curiosity might 
tempt to its perusal, that love of Nature which forms one of the purest and richest 
sources of pleasure through life." — Saturday Post. 

u No more beautiful present can be given to our children, nor one better calculated to 
enlarge their views of the wonders of creation. It will also furnish much knowledge 
to children of a larger growth."— State Banner. 

LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, 

Publishers. 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proces 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: . ,. ,- , 20C 

PreservationTechnologie 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATIC 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township. PA 16066 



